Austria's Future: Removing Hungary's Influence And Legacy

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was a constitutional monarchy in Central Europe that existed between 1867 and 1918. It was formed through a compromise between the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph and Hungary, which gave Hungary full internal autonomy in exchange for the Empire remaining a single great state for war and foreign affairs purposes. The Empire was made up of two sovereign states, Austria and Hungary, with a single monarch who was titled Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. The two countries established diplomatic relations in 1921, after their separation.

In the game Europa Universalis IV, players can attempt to form Austria-Hungary by having Austria marry into Hungary, claiming the Hungarian throne, and enforcing a personal union through war. However, this can be challenging as it depends on various factors such as the legitimacy and prestige of the Hungarian ruler. Additionally, there is a random element to whether Hungary accepts the personal union, and players may need to save scum or restart the game multiple times to achieve the desired outcome.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire's dissolution

The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire was a significant political event that occurred due to several factors, including internal social contradictions, diverging interests of Hungarians and Austrians, and the impact of World War I. Here is an overview of the dissolution process:

Growing Tensions and World War I

The Austro-Hungarian Empire, a dual monarchy consisting of the Empire of Austria (Cisleithania) and the Kingdom of Hungary (Transleithania), faced increasing tensions in the years leading up to World War I. These tensions were fuelled by a widening gap between Hungarian and Austrian interests, and the Empire's chronic overcommitment to fulfilling a strong Austrian role pledged at the 1815 Congress of Vienna. Additionally, the Annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908 angered Serbian and Pan-Slav nationalists, further escalating tensions in the region.

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo in June 1914 served as a catalyst for World War I, intensifying religious and ethnic hostilities within the Empire. The war efforts placed a significant strain on the Empire, with the multi-ethnic army struggling to maintain morale and facing supply shortages. The Italian front's military breakdown marked a turning point, as various ethnicities within the Empire refused to continue fighting for a cause they no longer believed in.

Social and Economic Crises

By 1918, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was facing a dire economic situation, with crop failures, starvation, and an influenza pandemic affecting the population. The government failed to effectively manage the crisis, leading to widespread misery and a desire for peace among the people. The Empire's multi-ethnic army, already struggling with low morale, was further demoralised by the suspension of civil rights and contemptuous treatment by the military.

Rise of Nationalism and Socialism

The October Revolution of 1917 and the Wilsonian peace pronouncements from January 1918 encouraged the growth of socialism and nationalism within the Empire. Nationalist movements, previously calling for autonomy, began demanding full independence for various areas. Leftist and liberal political parties gained traction, particularly in the capital cities of Vienna and Budapest, where they supported the separatism of ethnic minorities.

Attempts at Compromise

Emperor Karl I attempted to preserve the Empire by proposing the People's Manifesto, which envisioned transforming the Empire into a federal state of five kingdoms. However, this proposal was rejected by the national groups, who sought independence. On October 14, 1918, Foreign Minister Baron István Burián von Rajecz requested an armistice based on President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, which included the demand for nationalities within the Empire to have the "freest opportunity to autonomous development."

The Final Stages

On October 17, 1918, the Hungarian Parliament voted to terminate the union with Austria, marking a pivotal moment in the dissolution process. Count Mihály Károlyi, a prominent opponent of the union, seized power in the Aster Revolution and became the Hungarian prime minister. Károlyi's government took steps to formally repudiate the compromise agreement, officially dissolving the Austro-Hungarian monarchy and state.

The remaining territories inhabited by divided peoples were incorporated into existing or newly formed states. The collapse of the Empire was legally formalized through the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye with Austria in 1919 and the Treaty of Trianon with Hungary in 1920. These treaties had significant political and economic impacts, reducing Austria and Hungary to small, landlocked states and leading to economic barriers and extremist movements in the region.

The 1918 crop failure

The impact of the crop failure was felt across the empire, but some regions were more severely affected than others. Galicia, which had experienced near-constant famines before the war, continued to suffer from food shortages and starvation during and after the crop failure. The situation was similarly dire in the Kingdom of Hungary, which comprised only 42% of the population of Austria-Hungary but provided more than half of the empire's armed forces. The thin majority of soldiers conscripted from the Kingdom of Hungary endured food shortages, with rations becoming increasingly scarce as the war progressed.

The crop failure also had political ramifications, as it fuelled nationalist movements and social unrest. Emperor Karl I attempted to address the food crisis and growing social unrest by proposing a federal state with greater autonomy for national groups, but this proposal was rejected by the national groups, who sought full independence. The 1918 crop failure, combined with other factors, ultimately led to the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the formation of independent nation-states.

The Hungarian Nationalities Law (1868)

The Hungarian Nationalities Law of 1868 was enacted in the second year of Austro-Hungarian Dualism. It declared that all citizens of Hungary, regardless of their nationality, were part of a single, indivisible, unitary Hungarian political nation. While the law guaranteed legal equality to all citizens, including in language use, practically only Hungarian was used in administrative, judicial, and higher educational contexts.

The law was a liberal piece of legislation that offered extensive language and cultural rights to minorities. It allowed citizens to address the government in their mother tongue, and for counties and higher church authorities to address the government in Hungarian with other languages in parallel columns. It also mandated the translation of new laws into minority languages. However, subsequent regulations and policies often contradicted the spirit of the law.

The law was passed in the aftermath of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, which gave Hungary greater autonomy within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The law was intended to address the concerns of Hungary's national minorities and prevent the establishment of politically autonomous territories for them. However, the leaders of these minorities, including Romanians, Serbs, and Slovaks, aspired to full territorial autonomy rather than just linguistic and cultural rights.

The law was largely ignored in practice, and the Hungarian government and Magyar elites gradually eroded the linguistic rights it had granted. By 1900, Transleithanian state administration, businesses, and high society spoke Hungarian almost exclusively. By 1910, 96% of civil servants, 91% of all public employees, 97% of judges and public prosecutors, 91% of secondary school teachers, and 89% of medical doctors had learned Hungarian as their first language.

The Hungarian Nationalities Law of 1868 was a significant piece of legislation in the history of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, but it ultimately failed to prevent the rise of nationalist movements and the eventual collapse of the empire in 1918.

The Basic Law of the State (Staatsgrundgesetz) of 1867

In addition, the Basic Law of the State (Staatsgrundgesetz) of 1867 included provisions for the establishment of an independent court system, with the creation of a Supreme Court of the Empire. It affirmed the separation of administration and judiciary, guaranteeing the right of the people to participate in the administration of criminal justice, and introducing trial by jury for serious crimes.

The law also addressed issues of governance, expanding the powers of the Imperial Council and regulating relations between the Cisleithanian and Transleithanian legislatures. It ensured equal access to public functions and affirmed the freedom of movement and the right to choose one's vocation.

Furthermore, the Basic Law of the State (Staatsgrundgesetz) of 1867 recognised the equality of all current languages in schools, administration, and public life. It also acknowledged the inviolable right of each ethnic entity to preserve and foster its nationality and language.

Overall, the Basic Law of the State (Staatsgrundgesetz) of 1867 played a crucial role in defining the rights and freedoms of individuals within the Austrian half of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, laying the foundation for a more modern and inclusive society.

The 1917 October Revolution

The October Revolution followed the February Revolution earlier that year, which had led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the creation of the Russian Provisional Government. The provisional government, led by Alexander Kerensky, was weak and riddled with internal dissension. It continued to fight in World War I, which was unpopular with the Russian people, and ruled with an iron fist.

During this time, urban workers began to organise into councils (soviets), where revolutionaries criticised the provisional government. In September and October 1917, there were mass strike actions by workers in Moscow and Petrograd, miners in the Donbas, metalworkers in the Urals, and many others. Workers established control over production and distribution in many factories and plants, negotiating better working conditions, pay, and hours.

In October 1917, peasant uprisings were common, with the peasant movement against landowners spreading to 482 of 624 counties, or 77% of the country. Soldiers' wives were also key players in the unrest in the villages, as they were often left to head households while men were away at war.

On October 10, 1917, the Petrograd Soviet, led by Leon Trotsky, voted to back a military uprising. On October 24, the government shut down newspapers and closed the city of Petrograd in an attempt to forestall the revolution, but minor armed skirmishes broke out. The next day, a full-scale uprising erupted as a fleet of Bolshevik sailors entered the harbour and tens of thousands of soldiers rose up in support of the Bolsheviks. Bolshevik Red Guard forces began the occupation of government buildings, and in the early morning of October 26, the Winter Palace (the seat of the Provisional government) was captured.

The Petrograd Soviet now controlled the government, garrison, and proletariat, and the Second All Russian Congress of Soviets held its opening session on October 25. Lenin initially turned down the leading position of Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars, but eventually accepted the role. The Congress of Soviets passed a decree transferring power to the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers', and Peasants' Deputies, thus ratifying the Revolution.

The October Revolution saw Lenin's Bolsheviks seize power at the expense of more moderate social democrats (Mensheviks) and conservative "Whites". It marked the inception of the first communist government in Russia and the first large-scale and constitutionally ordained socialist state in world history.

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