The Complex Role Of Imams In Afghanistan's Cultural And Political Landscape

Afghanistan is an Islamic state, with approximately 99.7% of the population following Islam. Islam was introduced to the region in the 7th century AD, and gradually became the primary religion. Today, the majority of Afghans are Sunni Muslims, with a smaller proportion of Shia Muslims.

Islam is a central and pervasive influence in Afghan society, with religious observances punctuating the rhythm of daily and seasonal life. The country's mosques serve not only as places of worship but also as shelters, meeting places, and schools.

Afghanistan has had several notable imams, including Abdul Rauf, an anti-Taliban cleric, and Mohammed Nabi Yusufi.

Sunni and Shia Islam in Afghanistan

Islam is the official state religion of Afghanistan, with approximately 99.7% of the Afghan population being Muslim. Of these, around 90% practice Sunni Islam, while around 10% are Shias.

The historical divide of Islam into Sunni and Shia was caused more by a political dispute over successors than doctrinal differences, although these differences gradually assumed theological and metaphysical overtones. Sunni Muslims constitute 85% of the world's Muslim population, while Shia Muslims make up around 15%.

Sunni Islam, also known as orthodox Islam, has four major schools of theological law: Hanafi, Maleki, Shafii, and Hanbali. Hanafi is dominant in the Arab Middle East, India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. Hanafi Shariah was established as the state religion in Afghanistan's 1931 Constitution.

Shia Islam also has four major schools of theological law. The Ithna Ashariya or Imami branch is the state religion in Iran and is dominant in Iraq, with a presence in Afghanistan. The majority of Shias in Afghanistan belong to this branch, including the Hazara and Qizilbash ethnic groups. The Ismaili branch, led by the Aga Khan, is present throughout the Muslim world, including Afghanistan, where they are found primarily in the eastern regions. The Zaidiya branch is found in Yemen, and the Mutazila branch is present in Syria and Lebanon.

Shia Muslims in Afghanistan have traditionally been targeted by the Taliban, who view them as heretics. However, under the government of Hamid Karzai, which came to power after the downfall of the Taliban in 2001, all ethnic and religious groups were granted freedoms. Shia Muslims in Afghanistan have been able to celebrate their festivals on a larger scale and with more openness and confidence than ever before. Ashura, the most important day of the Shia calendar, is now marked with a public holiday in Afghanistan.

Despite the freedoms gained, Afghanistan's Shia community has faced attacks from Sunni militant groups, with a deadly attack on a shrine in Kabul bringing attention to their vulnerability. Analysts believe that regional players such as Pakistan and Iran have a stake in Afghanistan's instability and may be attempting to open a sectarian divide between Sunnis and Shias in the country.

The role of Islam in the Afghan government

Afghanistan is an Islamic republic with a government consisting of three branches: the executive, legislative, and judiciary. The country is officially called the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, with Islam as its official state religion. The religion is practised by approximately 99.7% of the population, with roughly 90% practising Sunni Islam and around 10% practising Shia Islam.

Islam has been the official state religion of Afghanistan since the Arab Islamic conquest of the country from the 7th to the 10th centuries. It was generally accepted by local communities as a replacement for Zoroastrianism and Buddhism, with local tribes converting to the new religion. The first systematic employment of Islam as an instrument of state-building was initiated by King Abdur Rahman Khan between 1880 and 1901. He decreed that all laws must comply with Islamic law, elevating Sharia law over customary laws.

The question of how and where Islam should fit into future legal and political frameworks has been a major point of contention in negotiations between the Taliban and the Afghan government. While the Taliban seeks a political and legal order directly informed by its understanding of local Islamic tradition, the Afghan government aims to ensure adherence to norms that will allow the country to remain "interoperable" with the rest of the world.

The Afghan government's chief negotiator has reported some progress on meeting the Taliban's demand that the Hanafi school of Sunni jurisprudence serves as the principal source of legislation while also protecting the rights of religious minority groups. However, the rights of women, minorities, and those accused of crimes remain at risk due to the lack of clarity and inconsistent enforcement of laws and Islamic principles.

Religious freedom in Afghanistan

Afghanistan has a long history of religious conflict, with the country's religious freedom being heavily impacted by the Taliban's interpretation of Islamic law.

History of Religious Freedom in Afghanistan

Afghanistan's religious freedom has changed hands multiple times over the last few decades, with the country's constitution being rewritten to reflect the beliefs of the current ruling party.

In 2004, the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan was established, with the constitution stating that:

> Afghanistan shall be an Islamic Republic, independent, unitary, and indivisible state.

> The sacred religion of Islam shall be the religion of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Followers of other faiths shall be free within the bounds of law in the exercise and performance of their religious rights.

> No law shall contravene the tenets and provisions of the holy religion of Islam in Afghanistan.

However, in practice, nonconformity is dangerous. Even with US troops on the ground, religious freedoms were limited.

Taliban Rule

The Taliban's interpretation of Islamic law has resulted in the persecution of religious minorities, with the group imposing its beliefs on the country through a "Ministry for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice". This included edicts on dress code, employment, access to medical care, behaviour, religious practice, and expression.

The Taliban persecuted members of other Islamic sects and non-Muslims, with non-Muslims forbidden from building new places of worship and having to identify their houses by placing a yellow cloth on their rooftops.

Post-2002

In 2002, the Taliban was removed from power, and the country experienced a period of improved religious freedom. However, political instability meant that human rights and religious freedom were slow to improve.

Taliban Rule (2021 - Present)

The Taliban returned to power in 2021, and religious intolerance has increased. The Taliban has stated that the country is an Islamic emirate whose laws and governance must be consistent with Sharia law.

The Taliban has continued to persecute religious minorities, with Sikhs, Hindus, Christians, and other non-Muslim groups reporting verbal and physical harassment. Baha'is and Christians live in constant fear of exposure and are reluctant to reveal their religious identities.

The Taliban has also continued to kill or issue death threats to Sunni clerics for preaching messages that go against their interpretation of Islam.

Future of Religious Freedom in Afghanistan

The future of religious freedom in Afghanistan remains uncertain. The US has urged the Taliban to respect the human rights of all citizens, and the country has been placed on a Special Watch List due to severe violations of religious freedom.

The impact of the Taliban on religious practices

Afghanistan is an Islamic state, with around 90% of the population following Sunni Islam and the rest practising Shia Islam. The Taliban, a Sunni Islamist movement, has ruled most of Afghanistan twice: from 1996 to 2001, and again since 2021.

The Taliban's interpretation of Islam is strict and narrow, and they have a history of imposing their views on the entire population. During their first stint in power, the Taliban enforced a harsh brand of justice, with policies that were often merciless, particularly towards women, political opponents, and religious minorities. They banned music and television, and required women to wear the burqa and be accompanied by a male relative in public.

Since retaking power in 2021, the Taliban have again imposed their views on the country. They have banned girls from attending secondary school and university, banned women from working, and closed the Ministry for Women's Affairs. They have cracked down on press freedoms, and restricted access to worship for religious minorities. They have also replaced some imams with graduates from their religious schools, or madrassas.

The Taliban's harsh interpretation of Islam has led to international condemnation, and they have been designated an "entity of particular concern" by the US State Department. The US does not recognise the Taliban as the legitimate government of Afghanistan.

The Taliban's rule has had a detrimental impact on the lives of Afghans, particularly women. The economy has shrunk, and hundreds of thousands of jobs have been lost. Malnutrition has soared, and the UN estimates that almost all Afghans are now living in poverty. The Taliban's takeover has also wiped out gains in living standards made over the previous two decades, and aid from other countries has decreased.

The history of Islam in Afghanistan

Afghanistan's history of Islam is a rich and diverse one, with the religion introduced gradually to the region, often coexisting alongside Zoroastrianism and Buddhism.

Early History

Islam was first introduced to the region during the Muslim conquest of Persia, as Arab Muslims migrated eastwards to Khorasan, Sistan and Transoxiana. By 656, 15 years after the Battle of Nahāvand in 642 AD, they controlled all Sasanian domains except in Afghanistan and Makran. However, full Islamisation of the region would not occur until the period between the 10th and 12th centuries under the Ghaznavid and Ghurid dynasties, who patronised Muslim religious institutions.

Medieval Period

During the medieval period, Afghanistan was situated at the crossroads of several empires, from the Safavids to the Mughals, resulting in a vibrant and multicultural region with relatively high degrees of religious coexistence. Centres near Herat included Jewish cemeteries, testifying to a living Jewish community in Afghanistan.

19th Century

In the 19th century, Afghan emirs attempted to forge a modern European-style nation-state out of old imperial structures. Emir Abdur Rahman, also known as the "Iron Emir", used the language of jihad to crush local rebellions and resistance to his rule, particularly targeting the Hazara people. He viewed Islam as instrumental in consolidating his power and, for the first time in Afghan history, Sharia became the supreme law of the land.

20th and 21st Centuries

The Taliban, who ruled Afghanistan from the mid-1990s until 2001 and again from 2021, represent a modern phenomenon, arising from British rule in India, the country's partition, the Cold War, and support from Western and Gulf states for the anti-Soviet jihad during the 1980s. Their interpretation of Islam and their political role differ significantly from traditional Afghan Islam, which combined law and ethics (Sharia) with Sufi teaching and practice.

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