France's Triumph Over Austria: Revolution War Outcome

The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of sweeping military conflicts that resulted from the French Revolution and lasted from 1792 until 1802. They pitted France against Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and several other countries. The wars are divided into two periods: the War of the First Coalition (1792–1797) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802).

In April 1792, the Legislative Assembly declared war against Austria and Emperor Francis II. The first months of the war were disastrous for France, due to poor discipline and unrest in the army, which had been weakened by the revolution. However, in September 1792, the French defeated the Austrians and Prussians at Valmy, forcing them to retreat from French territory. This marked a turning point in French military fortunes.

The War of the First Coalition ended in 1797 with the Treaty of Campo Formio, in which Austria ceded the Austrian Netherlands to France and Northern Italy was turned into several French sister republics. The War of the Second Coalition began in 1798 with the French invasion of Egypt, led by Napoleon. This war also ended in defeat for the Austrians, with Napoleon's victory at the Battle of Marengo in June 1800 leading to the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801.

The War of the First Coalition (1792-1797)

In the early stages of the war, the French suffered several defeats, including at Quiévrain, Marquain, and Neerwinden. However, they also achieved some significant victories, such as the Battle of Valmy, where they halted the Prussian invasion. This victory led to the proclamation of the French Republic on 22 September 1792.

The French Republic faced significant challenges, with enemy armies invading from multiple fronts. They responded with draconian measures, including the Reign of Terror, to crush internal dissent and bolster their armies with conscripts. The French counterattacks, utilising their numerical superiority and revolutionary zeal, succeeded in pushing back the Allied armies.

During the war, the French made expansionist moves, such as the conquest of Belgium and the Rhineland, which drew more nations into the anti-French coalition. By 1793, the Republic was facing enemies on all fronts and had to fend off invasions and internal strife, such as the War in the Vendée. Despite these challenges, the French managed to push back the Allies and made significant gains, including the capture of the Austrian Netherlands and the Dutch Republic by 1795.

The French also achieved victories against Prussia, Spain, and other nations, leading to the Peace of Basel in 1795. As the war progressed, a hitherto unknown general named Napoleon Bonaparte rose to prominence, leading successful campaigns in Italy and Egypt. Napoleon's Italian Campaign of 1796-97 contributed significantly to the French success, as he defeated the Austrians and established several sister republics in Italy.

The First Coalition began to unravel as the French victories demoralised the Allies. Prussia, Spain, and other nations withdrew from the war, and the Treaty of Campo Formio in October 1797 left Great Britain as the only nation still at war with France. The War of the First Coalition ended in October 1797, paving the way for the subsequent War of the Second Coalition.

The War of the Second Coalition (1798-1802)

The War of the Second Coalition (1798/9–1801/2) was the second war targeting Revolutionary France by many European monarchies. Led by Britain, Austria, and Russia, the coalition also included the Ottoman Empire, Portugal, Naples, and various German monarchies. The overall goal of Britain and Russia was to contain the expansion of the French Republic and restore the monarchy in France. Austria, weakened and in deep financial debt from the War of the First Coalition, sought to recover its position and emerge from the war stronger than when it entered.

The Second Coalition was formed several months after the end of the War of the First Coalition, which lasted from 1792 to 1797. In the interim, from October 1797 until March 1799, France and Austria avoided armed conflict but remained sceptical of each other, and several diplomatic incidents undermined the agreement. The French demanded additional territory not mentioned in the Treaty of Campo Formio that ended the First Coalition, while the Habsburgs were reluctant to hand over designated territories.

In the summer of 1798, Napoleon led an expedition to Egypt and Syria. On his way to Egypt, he stopped at the heavily fortified port city of Valletta, the capital of Hospitaller Malta. The ruler of the island allowed only two ships at a time in the harbour, in accordance with the island's neutrality. Napoleon ordered the bombardment of Valletta, and on June 11, 1798, he directed a landing of several thousand French troops at strategic locations around the island. The French Knights of the Order deserted, and the remaining Knights failed to mount a successful resistance. Napoleon forcibly removed the other Knights from their possessions, angering Emperor Paul I of Russia, who was the honorary head of the Order.

The preliminary military action under the Second Coalition occurred on November 29, 1798, when General Karl Mack, an Austrian serving Naples, occupied Rome, wishing to restore Papal authority with the Neapolitan army. The poorly equipped and led Neapolitan army was soon defeated outside Rome and pushed back, and Naples itself was occupied by France on January 23, 1799.

In Europe, the allies mounted several invasions, including campaigns in Italy and Switzerland and an Anglo-Russian invasion of the Netherlands. Russian General Alexander Suvorov inflicted a series of defeats on the French in Italy, driving them back to the Alps. The allies were less successful in the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland, where the British and Russians retreated after a defeat at Castricum. They also faced setbacks in Switzerland, where after initial victories, an Austro-Russian army was completely routed at the Second Battle of Zurich. These reverses, as well as British insistence on searching shipping in the Baltic Sea, led to Russia's withdrawal from the Coalition.

Napoleon invaded Syria from Egypt but retreated after a failed siege of Acre, repelling a British-Turkish invasion. Alerted to the political and military crisis in France, he returned, leaving his army behind, and used his popularity and army support to mount a coup that made him First Consul, the head of the French government.

In May 1800, Napoleon led his troops across the Alps through the Great St. Bernard Pass into Italy in a military campaign against the Austrians. He conducted the Siege of Fort Bard against the Sardinian and Austrian armies for two weeks, after which he was able to cross the Alps and enter Italy. He narrowly defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Marengo. While the Austrians had a much larger force, Napoleon was able to organise a hurried retreat from the village before returning with reinforcements. The French successfully charged the Austrian flank with cavalry, and Austria agreed to evacuate Piedmont, Liguria, and Lombardy.

In December 1800, France dispatched the Saint-Domingue expedition to recapture the former colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti), which had been independent since the 1791 Haitian Revolution. This expedition ended in catastrophic failure; by the end of 1802, an estimated 15,000–22,000 had died of disease and yellow fever, including Napoleon's brother-in-law, General Charles Leclerc.

On March 25, 1802, Britain and France signed the Treaty of Amiens, ending British involvement in the war. The Treaty of Paris of June 25, 1802, ended the war between France and the Ottoman Empire, the last remaining member of the Second Coalition. The peace treaties ceded the left bank of the Rhine to France and recognised the independence of the Cisalpine, Batavian, and Helvetic republics. This began the longest period of peace during the period 1792–1815.

Napoleon's expedition to Egypt (1798)

Napoleon's expedition to Egypt in 1798 was part of the French Revolutionary Wars, which had been ongoing since 1792. The expedition was a military campaign and occupation of Ottoman territories in Egypt and Syria, and was the primary purpose of the Mediterranean campaign of 1798.

Napoleon set sail for Egypt on 19 May 1798, with 50,000 men and 800 horses. He was accompanied by 160 scientists, engineers, and artists, who were tasked with studying Egypt. The group included naturalists, biologists, surveyors, archaeologists, and more. They were to study Egyptian flora and fauna, make topographical readings, and draw maps, as well as study the country's mysterious pyramids.

On the way to Egypt, Napoleon's fleet captured Malta on 11 June 1798. Napoleon then landed near Alexandria on 1 July 1798 and took the city the following day. On 21 July, Napoleon's forces won the Battle of the Pyramids, securing Lower Egypt. Napoleon entered Cairo on 24 July. However, on 1 August, the British fleet under Horatio Nelson destroyed the French fleet at Aboukir, stranding Napoleon in Egypt.

Napoleon's expedition to Egypt had both scientific and military objectives. The scientists made many discoveries, and their work was recorded in the "Description de l'Égypte", published between 1809 and 1828. On the military front, Napoleon consolidated his control of Egypt and then invaded Ottoman Syria in early 1799, capturing El Arish and Jaffa. He laid siege to Acre but was forced to retreat to Egypt due to plague and a lack of success. In July 1799, Napoleon defeated a Turkish beachhead at Aboukir.

In August 1799, Napoleon decided to return to Europe, leaving his army under the command of Jean-Baptiste Kléber. Napoleon sailed through the British blockade and returned to Paris, where he used his popularity and the support of the army to stage a coup, installing himself as First Consul.

The Treaty of Campo Formio (1797)

The Treaty of Campo Formio, signed on 17 October 1797, was a peace settlement between France and Austria, concluding five years of war between the two nations. The treaty was signed by Napoleon Bonaparte, representing the French Republic, and Count Ludwig von Cobenzl, representing the Austrian Empire. The treaty followed the armistice of Leoben, which had been forced on the Habsburgs by Napoleon's victorious campaign in Italy. The Treaty of Campo Formio ended the War of the First Coalition and left Great Britain as the only remaining power fighting against revolutionary France.

The public articles of the treaty concerned only France and Austria and called for a Congress of Rastatt to negotiate a final peace for the Holy Roman Empire. The secret articles of the treaty, however, revealed that Austria, as the personal state of the Emperor, promised to work with France towards certain ends at the congress. The treaty also meant the end of the ancient Republic of Venice, which was disbanded and partitioned between France and Austria.

The terms of the treaty included the cession of Austrian territories to France, including the Austrian Netherlands (present-day Belgium). Territories of the Republic of Venice were divided between the two states, with certain islands in the Mediterranean, such as Corfu and other Venetian possessions in the Ionian Sea, turned over to the French. In return, France recognised the Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics in northern Italy as independent powers and promised to help Austria obtain Salzburg and part of Bavaria.

The Treaty of Campo Formio was a significant event in European history, reshaping the map of the continent and bringing fame to Napoleon. However, it did not bring lasting peace. By early 1799, France and Austria were at war again, this time in the War of the Second Coalition, which ended with the Peace of Lunéville in 1801.

The Treaty of Lunéville (1801)

The Treaty of Lunéville, also known as the Peace of Lunéville, was signed on 9 February 1801 between the French Republic and the Holy Roman Emperor Francis II. The treaty formally ended Austrian and Imperial participation in the War of the Second Coalition and the French Revolutionary Wars, which had been sparked by the French Revolution. The Austrian army had suffered defeats at the hands of Napoleon Bonaparte and Jean Victor Moreau in the preceding years, most notably at the Battle of Marengo in June 1800 and the Battle of Hohenlinden in December. These losses forced the Austrians to sue for peace and enter negotiations.

The signatories of the treaty were Joseph Bonaparte, representing the French Republic, and Count Ludwig von Cobenzl, the Austrian foreign minister, who represented Emperor Francis II. The treaty built upon and confirmed previous agreements, such as the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797) and the Treaty of Leoben (1797). It declared that:

> "There shall be, henceforth and forever, peace, amity, and good understanding"

Among the parties. Here are the key terms and outcomes of the Treaty of Lunéville:

• Cession of Territories: Austria ceded territories on the left bank of the Rhine to France, including the Austrian Netherlands, which France would possess with "complete sovereignty". The Rhine would serve as the new boundary between the French Republic and the Germanic Empire.
• Compensation for Losses: Princes and states who lost territories, such as the Grand Duke of Tuscany and the Duke of Modena, were to be compensated with territories in Germany east of the Rhine.
• Recognition of Republics: The independence and sovereignty of the Batavian, Cisalpine, Ligurian, and Helvetic republics were recognised by both parties.
• Secularisation and Annexation: In Northern Italy, the semi-independent bishoprics of Trento and Brixen were secularised and annexed to Austria.
• Enforcement of Previous Treaties: Austria was required to enforce the conditions of the Treaty of Campo Formio, which included ceding the Austrian Netherlands to France and recognising French control of Northern Italy.
• Demolition of Fortresses: Certain imperial fortresses on the right bank of the Rhine were to be demolished as per the terms of the treaty.
• Compensation through Secularisation: The process of compensating princes who lost territories was to be supervised by France and would largely occur through the secularisation of ecclesiastical principalities, as outlined at the Congress of Rastatt.
• Grand Duchy of Tuscany: The Grand Duchy of Tuscany, which had been unaffected by the Treaty of Campo Formio, was ceded to France under the Treaty of Lunéville.
• Fortress of Mantua: While negotiations were ongoing, the French and Austrian commanders in Italy concluded the Armistice of Treviso, which left the fortress of Mantua in Austrian hands.
• Alliance with Russia: During the negotiations, France actively sought an alliance with Russia, which would influence the reorganisation of the Empire.

The Treaty of Lunéville marked a significant development in the French Revolutionary Wars, solidifying French gains and reshaping the geopolitical landscape of Europe. With Austria and Russia withdrawing from the conflict, Britain found itself increasingly isolated and agreed to the Treaty of Amiens in 1802, bringing a temporary end to the Revolutionary Wars. However, lingering tensions would soon escalate into the Napoleonic Wars, as the conflict entered a new phase.

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