Austria's Nazi Alliance: Friend Or Foe?

On March 13, 1938, Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany, an event known as the Anschluss. The country was then a part of Nazi Germany until April 27, 1945, when Allied-occupied Austria declared independence. During World War II, 950,000 Austrians fought for the Nazi German armed forces, and many others participated in the Nazi administration, from death camp personnel to senior Nazi leadership.

The Anschluss was the Nazi German regime's first act of territorial aggression and expansion. It was widely popular in both Germany and Austria, with many Germans and Austrians enthusiastically welcoming the union. However, the referendum that followed, which recorded a vote of more than 99% in favour of the Anschluss, was neither free nor secret.

While the great majority of Austrians were not Nazis, popular support for Germany's wartime policies remained strong until the later phases of the war. The Austrian resistance was small but not negligible, and tens of thousands of Austrians were arrested for political reasons during the war.

The annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany

The idea of the Anschluss was not new and had arisen after the unification of Germany in 1871, which excluded Austria. It gained support after World War I, when the Austro-Hungarian Empire fell and the new Republic of German-Austria attempted to form a union with Germany. However, the Treaty of Saint Germain and the Treaty of Versailles forbade the unification of the two countries. Despite this, the idea of the Anschluss remained popular in Austria and Germany, particularly among those who believed that Austria was not economically viable without uniting with Germany.

In the early 1930s, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party rose to power in Germany, and they made the annexation of Austria an integral part of their agenda. Hitler, himself an Austrian, had written about his desire to unite Austria and Germany in his autobiography, "Mein Kampf." In 1933, Austrian Nazis attempted a coup, assassinating Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss. However, the coup failed, and many leading Austrian Nazis fled to Germany, where they continued to push for unification.

In early 1938, Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg announced a referendum on the possible union with Germany, to be held on March 13. Hitler, however, was not willing to allow the referendum to take place and demanded Schuschnigg's resignation. On March 11, facing pressure from Hitler and the German Army, Schuschnigg resigned. The next day, March 12, German troops crossed the Austrian border, and Hitler appointed a new Nazi government, led by Arthur Seyss-Inquart. On March 13, the annexation was officially proclaimed, and Austria became a province of Nazi Germany, known as the Ostmark.

The annexation was widely popular in both Germany and Austria, and many Austrians participated enthusiastically in the Nazification of their country. However, it also resulted in an outburst of public violence against Austria's Jewish population, who were subjected to discriminatory laws, humiliation, and persecution. Many Jews attempted to leave the country, and those who remained eventually became victims of the Holocaust.

The international community did not intervene to stop the annexation or punish Nazi Germany for violating international treaties. This act of appeasement allowed Hitler to continue his expansionary policies, and just six months later, he manufactured a crisis in Czechoslovakia, which ultimately led to the invasion of that country as well.

The Austrian population's support for the Nazis

The annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany, known as the Anschluss, was widely popular in both Germany and Austria. On March 11, 1938, Hitler made two demands of the Austrian government: the postponement of the plebiscite and the resignation of Chancellor Schuschnigg. The next day, Schuschnigg conceded and resigned, and on March 12, German troops entered Austria to be greeted by cheering Austrians.

The Anschluss was the first act of territorial expansion by Nazi Germany, and it was made possible by the support of the Austrian population. Most Austrians considered themselves ethnically German, and many hoped to restore a form of the Austro-Hungarian Empire or unite with Germany. In the 1930s, Austrian politics was marked by infighting and political violence, and the rise of the Nazis in 1933 further destabilized the situation. Austrian chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss transformed Austria into a right-wing authoritarian regime, and the Austrian Nazi Party waged a propaganda and terror campaign, encouraged and funded by Germany.

After the failed Nazi coup in July 1934, Dollfuss was assassinated, and Kurt von Schuschnigg took over as Austrian chancellor and dictator. Schuschnigg continued Dollfuss' authoritarian policies, and thousands of Austrian Nazis were arrested, including some of the conspirators. However, by the winter of 1937-1938, Austria found itself diplomatically isolated and facing an increasingly aggressive Nazi Germany. Schuschnigg made a final attempt to assert Austrian independence by calling a plebiscite on March 9, 1938, but Hitler responded with ultimatums, and Schuschnigg was forced to resign.

The Anschluss was not inevitable, but certain historical factors facilitated the process. The Austrian Nazi Party was initially weak and ineffective, but it gained supporters as Hitler's popularity in Germany increased, especially after he became chancellor in 1933. The Austrian Nazi Party waged a propaganda and terror campaign, targeting Jewish-owned businesses and the Dollfuss regime, which appeared incompetent. The Austrian government banned the Austrian Nazi Party in June 1933, but the party continued to operate illegally, and thousands of Austrian Nazis fled to Germany, where they received military training.

During World War II, 950,000 Austrians fought for the Nazi German armed forces, and other Austrians participated in the Nazi administration, including senior Nazi leadership. The majority of bureaucrats who implemented the Final Solution were Austrian. Austrians were also overrepresented in the system of terror against Jews, with a disproportionate number of Austrians serving in the SS and concentration camp personnel.

After World War II, many Austrians sought comfort in the myth of Austria as the first victim of the Nazis. The "victim theory" became a fundamental myth of Austrian society, allowing former Nazis to be brought back into social and political life. It was not until the 1990s that Austria admitted its collective responsibility for the crimes committed during the Nazi occupation and officially abandoned the "victim theory".

The Austrian resistance to the Nazis

One of the most notable Austrian resistance groups was led by the priest Heinrich Maier. This group sought to re-establish a Habsburg monarchy after the war and played a crucial role in providing the Allies with information on Nazi production sites for weapons such as V-1 and V-2 rockets, Tiger tanks, and aircraft. They also maintained contact with Allen Dulles, head of the U.S. OSS in Switzerland, and their intelligence contributed to key operations such as Operation Crossbow and Operation Hydra. Additionally, the Maier group was one of the first to report the mass murder of Jews, utilizing contacts at the Semperit factory near Auschwitz.

Another notable resistance group was the Austrian Freedom Front, a partisan group led by the Communist leader Franz Honner and supported by the USSR. By the end of the war, the Austrian Freedom Front had become the only armed movement in Austria.

Other resistance groups included the Carinthian Slovenes, who formed a nucleus of the resistance after targeted deportations and forced Germanisation by the Nazi regime; the group around Otto von Habsburg, who denounced Nazism and opposed the Anschluss; and various worker's and leftist groups, including the Revolutionary Socialists of Austria (RSÖ) and the Socialist Workers Assistance (SAH).

Resistance activities included issuing counter-Nazi political leaflets, collecting donations for families of those arrested, providing intelligence to the Allies, and occasional sabotage of key civil and military installations. Most resisting Austrians avoided postings to the active war fronts.

The Austrian resistance faced significant challenges, as maintaining organizational cohesion was a penal offence. Many members of the resistance were arrested, imprisoned, or executed for their activities. However, their efforts played a crucial role in opposing the Nazi regime and providing critical intelligence to the Allies.

The persecution of Jews following the Anschluss

In the days, weeks, and months that followed the Anschluss, Austrian and German Nazis carried out the Nazification of all aspects of Austrian life. Many Austrians participated enthusiastically in this endeavour.

In the wake of the Anschluss, Jews were also subjected to the same laws and restrictions that discriminated against Jews in Nazi Germany. Many decided to try to leave Austria, with lines appearing at consulates across Vienna.

The persecution of Jews in Austria was not limited to the actions of Austrian Nazis. The Austrian government itself arrested thousands of Austrian Nazis, including some of the conspirators behind the failed coup in July 1934. The government also banned the Austrian Nazi Party and its affiliates in June 1933.

However, the Austrian Nazis continued to operate illegally within the country, and thousands fled across the border into Germany, where they formed a paramilitary unit known as the Austrian Legion. This unit became a threatening military presence just across the Austro-German border.

The Soviet occupation of Austria

The Soviet Union's occupation of Austria was shaped by the Moscow Declaration of 1943, in which the British, Americans, and Soviets proclaimed that Austria was the first victim of Nazi aggression. This declaration ultimately led to Austria's independence from Soviet influence after World War II.

The story of the Soviet occupation of Austria began in June 1941 when Hitler's regime launched Operation Barbarossa, a genocidal war against the Soviet Union. The aim was not only to eliminate the Soviet Union as a potential military threat but also to starve and enslave its population and turn it into a German colony. The Soviet Union suffered immense losses, with 26.6 million people perishing during the war.

In the winter of 1945, troops from the 3rd and 2nd Ukrainian Fronts approached Austria's border from Hungary. The fighting in Hungary was brutal, resulting in heavy losses for the Red Army. As they regrouped to invade Austria, the Germans launched their last major offensive of the war at Lake Balaton. However, the Soviet troops launched a counterattack, resulting in the Vienna Strategic Offensive Operation and the capture of Vienna. The Red Army then advanced towards Linz and Graz in early May.

While the Soviet Union treated Austria as a defeated Axis power, it also acknowledged that Austria was a victim of Germany, which spared the country some of the harshest consequences. Austria did not lose any territory, and its citizens were not subjected to ethnic cleansing or mass expulsions. Additionally, the Western Allies prevented the Kremlin from imposing heavy war reparations on Austria.

Soviet occupation policies in Austria were influenced by the Moscow Declaration, which recognised Austria's role in Nazi crimes but also affirmed its status as a victim. The Red Army occupied only parts of Austria, including the capital, while Anglo-American troops entered from Germany and Italy. Austria was then divided into four occupation zones, similar to Germany.

The Soviet Union did not attempt to impose a communist dictatorship in Austria, which limited the scale of political violence experienced by Austrians compared to other countries occupied by the Red Army. Soviet military tribunals arrested around 800 Austrian civilians in the initial eight months of occupation, with charges ranging from belonging to the Nazi Werewolf resistance group to espionage and war crimes. By 1955, when the Red Army withdrew, approximately 2,400 Austrians had been arrested, with 1,250 prosecuted for various crimes, including war crimes and everyday criminal activity. Around 150 individuals were executed, while others received lengthy prison sentences.

During the occupation, the Soviet Union imposed burdensome reparations on Austria, which contributed to the country's impoverishment. They deployed NKVD (Soviet secret police) teams to extract reparations through the seizure of industrial plants and production installations. According to historian Walter Iber, Austria paid the Soviet Union 36.8 billion Schillings, or two percent of its accumulated GDP, from 1946 to 1955.

The end of the war did not bring liberation for most Austrians, who endured looting, raping, and hunger. Parliamentary elections in November 1945 resulted in a defeat for the Communist Party of Austria, which received less than six percent of the national vote. A new government was formed by a coalition of Social Democrats and Christian Democrats, the traditional center-left and center-right Austrian parties. The Soviets maintained control in their occupation zone until 1955, when they withdrew along with the Western Allies after Austria pledged to remain neutral in the Cold War.

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