Un Peacekeeping: Austria's Conflict Intervention

Austria has been involved in several conflicts over the years, and the UN has had to intervene in some of them. One notable example is World War II, where Austria was occupied by Nazi Germany in 1938. However, in 1943, the Allies (including the UN) agreed in the Declaration of Moscow to treat Austria as the first victim of Nazi aggression and work towards its liberation. After World War II, Austria was divided into four occupation zones by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union. This occupation ended in 1955 when Austria was granted full independence and pledged perpetual neutrality.

The UN's role in the Anschluss

The United Nations (UN) was established in 1945, after the Anschluss, which took place in 1938. Therefore, the UN did not play a role in the Anschluss. However, the League of Nations, the predecessor of the UN, did exist at the time of the Anschluss.

The League of Nations was established after the First World War to maintain world peace and prevent future wars. In 1919, the League of Nations and the Treaty of Versailles explicitly forbade the unification of Austria and Germany. The Treaty of Versailles also stripped Austria of some of its territories, such as the Sudetenland.

Despite the League of Nations' efforts, the idea of unifying Austria and Germany to form a "Greater Germany" gained support in the 1920s and 1930s, particularly among Austrian citizens of the political left and center. The unification proposal was also strongly supported by the Nazis, who rose to power in Germany in 1933.

In 1938, Austrian chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg announced a referendum on a possible union with Germany. However, under pressure from Adolf Hitler and pro-unification activists, Schuschnigg resigned, and the German army crossed the border into Austria. A plebiscite was held, resulting in 99.7% approval for the unification, or Anschluss.

The League of Nations did not take any significant action in response to these events, and the unification of Austria and Germany proceeded. This failure to enforce its resolutions demonstrated the League of Nations' weakness and ineffectiveness.

The Austrian Civil War

The conflict began when members of the Republican Protection League fired on Austrian police who were attempting to enter the Social Democrats' party headquarters in Linz to search for weapons. The fighting quickly spread to Vienna and other industrial centres in eastern and central Austria. The Austrian police and Federal Army, bolstered by superior numbers and firepower, swiftly quelled the uprising. The overall death toll is estimated at 350, with some sources placing the number higher.

The socialists' defeat led to arrests, executions, and the banning of the Social Democratic Party. Austria's democratic constitution was replaced by an Austrofascist constitution, with the Fatherland Front as the only legal party. This marked a shift towards an authoritarian regime, the Federal State of Austria.

The Austro-Prussian War

The Road to War

The war erupted due to a dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein, which they had conquered from Denmark and agreed to jointly occupy at the end of the Second Schleswig War in 1864. On January 26, 1866, Prussia protested the decision of the Austrian Governor of Holstein to permit the estates of the duchies to call up a united assembly, claiming it breached the principle of joint sovereignty. Austria responded on February 7, asserting that its decision did not infringe on Prussia's rights. In March, Austria reinforced its troops along its frontier with Prussia, and Prussia responded with a partial mobilization of five divisions.

The Prussian Minister President, Otto von Bismarck, formed an alliance with Italy on April 8, committing it to the war if Prussia entered one against Austria within three months. This incentivized Bismarck to go to war with Austria within that timeframe. Austria responded by mobilizing its Southern Army on the Italian border on April 21. Italy called for a general mobilization on April 26, and Austria ordered its own general mobilization the next day. Prussia's general mobilization orders were signed in steps between May 3 and May 12.

The War Begins

On June 1, Austria brought the Schleswig-Holstein dispute before the German Diet, and on June 5, it decided to convene the Diet of Holstein on June 11. Prussia declared that the Gastein Convention of August 14, 1865, was nullified and invaded Holstein on June 9. When the German Diet responded by voting for a partial mobilization against Prussia on June 14, Bismarck claimed that the German Confederation had ended. The Prussian Army invaded Hanover, Saxony, and the Electorate of Hesse on June 15. Italy declared war on Austria on June 20.

The Main Campaign

The main campaign of the war occurred in Bohemia. Prussian Chief of General Staff Helmuth von Moltke had planned meticulously for the war. He rapidly mobilized the Prussian army and advanced across the border into Saxony and Bohemia, where the Austrian army was concentrating for an invasion of Silesia. The Prussian armies, led nominally by King William I, converged, and the two sides met at the Battle of Königgrätz (Hradec Králové) on July 3. Superior Prussian organization and élan decided the battle against Austrian numerical superiority, and the victory was near total, with Austrian battle deaths nearly seven times the Prussian figure.

Except for Saxony, the other German states allied to Austria played little role in the main campaign. Hanover's army defeated Prussia at the Second Battle of Langensalza on June 27, but within a few days, they were forced to surrender due to superior Prussian numbers. Prussian armies fought against Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, and the Hessian states on the river Main, reaching Nuremberg and Frankfurt. The Bavarian fortress of Würzburg was shelled by Prussian artillery, but the garrison defended its position until the armistice.

The War's Conclusion

The Austrians were more successful in their war with Italy, defeating them on land at the Battle of Custoza on June 24 and on sea at the Battle of Lissa on July 20. However, Italy's "Hunters of the Alps" led by Garibaldi defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Bezzecca on July 21, moving towards Trento. The Prussian peace with Austria forced the Italian government to seek an armistice with Austria on August 12.

To prevent "unnecessary bitterness of feeling or desire for revenge" and forestall intervention by France or Russia, Bismarck pushed King William I to make peace with the Austrians rapidly. The Austrians accepted mediation from France's Napoleon III, resulting in the Peace of Prague on August 23, 1866. The treaty led to the dissolution of the German Confederation, Prussian annexation of four of Austria's former allies, and the permanent exclusion of Austria from German affairs. Prussia was now free to form the North German Confederation, incorporating all the German states north of the Main River. The war left Prussia dominant in German politics, and German nationalism would lead the remaining independent states to ally with Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870.

The Allied occupation of Austria

Austria was occupied by the Allies and declared independent from Nazi Germany on the 27th of April 1945, as a result of the Vienna offensive. The country was divided into four occupation zones, jointly occupied by the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, the United States, and France. Vienna, the capital, was similarly subdivided, with the central district being collectively administered by the Allied Control Council. The occupation ended when the Austrian State Treaty came into force on the 27th of July 1955.

The End of World War II and the Vienna Offensive

During World War II, more than 20,000 Austrians were killed and 67,000 wounded in over 1000 aerial attacks. The devastation continued as more than a million troops fought heavy battles across Austria. The most critical issue was food, with daily calorie rations for the urban Austrian population falling to between 350 and 850 in the spring and summer of 1945.

In the final stages of the war, the troops of the 3rd and 2nd Ukrainian Fronts, numbering around 1 million, approached Austria's border from Hungary. After absorbing a last-ditch German offensive at Lake Balaton, the Soviets launched a counterattack and captured Vienna. Skirmishes between the Red Army and German soldiers desperate to surrender to the Western Allies lasted into late May, well after the fighting had ceased elsewhere in Europe.

The Occupation

In the immediate aftermath of World War II, Austria was jointly occupied by the four Allied powers. The Allied Council of four military governors convened for its first meeting in Vienna on the 12th of September 1945. The country was divided into four occupation zones:

• Vorarlberg and North Tyrol were assigned to the French Zone.
• Salzburg and Upper Austria south of the Danube were assigned to the American Zone.
• East Tyrol, Carinthia, and Styria were assigned to the British Zone.
• Burgenland, Lower Austria, and the Mühlviertel area of Upper Austria, north of the Danube, were assigned to the Soviet Zone.

Vienna was divided among all four Allies, with the historical center being declared an international zone, in which occupation forces changed every month.

The costs of keeping these troops were levied on the Austrian government. At first, Austria had to pay the whole occupation bill; in 1946, occupation costs were capped at 35% of Austrian state expenditures, equally split between the Soviets and the Western allies.

The First General Elections

The first general elections after the war were held on the 25th of November 1945 and resulted in a blow for the Communist Party of Austria, which received a little over 5% of the vote. The coalition of Christian Democrats (ÖVP) and Social Democrats (SPÖ), backed by 90% of the votes, assumed control over the cabinet and offered the position of Federal Chancellor to Christian Democrat Julius Raab. The Soviets vetoed Raab due to his membership in the austrofascist Fatherland Front during the 1930s. Instead, President Karl Renner, with the consent of parliament, appointed Leopold Figl, who was barely acceptable to the Soviets.

The Marshall Plan

In 1947, the Austrian economy, including USIA enterprises, reached 61% of pre-war levels, but it was disproportionately weak in consumer goods production (42% of pre-war levels). Food remained a significant problem, with daily rations remaining below 2000 calories until the end of 1947. In June 1947, the extent of the food crisis compelled the U.S. government to issue $300 million in food aid. In the same month, Austria was invited to discuss its participation in the Marshall Plan.

The Road to Independence

In January 1947, the first allied talks on Austrian independence were held but deadlocked over the issue of "German assets" in Soviet possession. In 1955, Soviet diplomats secretly advised Vyacheslav Molotov to unlink the Austrian and German issues, expecting that new talks on Austrian independence would delay ratification of the Paris Agreement. Molotov publicly announced the new Soviet initiative on the 8th of February, putting forward three conditions for Austrian independence: neutrality, no foreign military bases, and guarantees against a new Anschluss.

In March 1955, Molotov clarified his plan through consultations with ambassador Norbert Bischoff, agreeing that Austria was no longer hostage to the German issue. By April, Moscow and Vienna had reached a breakthrough, with the Soviets agreeing that Austria would be free no later than the 31st of December. Austrians agreed to pay for the "German assets" and oil fields left by the Soviets, mostly in kind.

On the 15th of May 1955, Antoine Pinay, Harold Macmillan, Molotov, John Foster Dulles, and Figl signed the Austrian State Treaty in Vienna. It came into force on the 27th of July, and on the 25th of October, the country was free of occupying troops. The next day, Austria's parliament enacted a Declaration of Neutrality, whereby Austria would never join a military alliance such as NATO or the Warsaw Pact.

Austria's involvement in the UN

Austria has been a member of the United Nations (UN) since 14 December 1955 and has established itself as an engaged member state. As one of four UN headquarters worldwide, Vienna has become an important centre for addressing global security challenges, such as nuclear safety and the fight against organised crime, as well as sustainability with a focus on energy and development.

Moreover, Austria has a particular interest in the fight against drugs and organised crime, disarmament and non-proliferation, environmental issues, and the further development of international law. The country has repeatedly acted as a mediator and made substantial contributions to the development of international law, known as the "Vienna Conventions".

During the UN General Assembly in the autumn of 2015, member states reached an agreement on the Agenda 2030 on Sustainable Development, pledging to work together to combat global challenges such as poverty and climate change. Austria actively supports this goal and participates in the implementation of Our Common Agenda, the UN Secretary-General's ambitious reform agenda.

Austria has also contributed to the sustainable development of both the country and the world, with the aim of realising human dignity for all, a healthy planet, just and resilient societies, and economic well-being. The country has been elected thrice to the Security Council and twice to the UN Human Rights Council, reflecting its high profile and recognition within the UN.

Overall, Austria's involvement in the UN has been characterised by its active, fair, and principled engagement, and it continues to play a significant role in shaping the organisation's agenda and contributing to global peace and security.

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