The Lingering Hostage Crisis In Afghanistan: A Complex And Troubling Legacy

Kidnapping and hostage-taking have become a common occurrence in Afghanistan since the U.S. invasion in 2001. The Taliban, Al-Qaeda fighters, and common criminals are among the kidnappers. The Taliban have a history of detaining Westerners as hostages to trade for political advantage. In April 2023, the U.S. Secretary of State, Antony Blinken, revealed that several U.S. citizens were being held prisoner by the Taliban, with some sources estimating the number to be as high as a dozen. The Taliban's former deputy foreign minister, Mirwais Naab, stated that their primary objective in abducting and detaining Western civilians is to compel their governments to establish direct communication and gain diplomatic recognition.

The Taliban's hostage diplomacy

The Taliban's perception of hostages and the third party, in this case, the international community, is a crucial factor in their hostage diplomacy. They view hostages as expendable and believe that using them can compel the third party to make concessions.

The Taliban have engaged in hostage-taking and negotiating since their emergence and have mastered the art. They have used hostage diplomacy to gain credit in the form of money and the release of their elite commanders. They have also employed it to secure international recognition and access to frozen funds.

The impact of hostage-taking on victims

Physical Effects

Hostages may have to endure an exacerbation of pre-existing physical conditions, such as asthma and diabetes, due to a lack of nutritious food, exercise, fresh air, and sleep. They may also develop new conditions as a result of their captivity. Common physical reactions during hostage situations include faintness, nausea, incontinence, and increased heart and respiratory rates.

Mental Effects

The mental effects of being held hostage can be profound and long-lasting. Common psychological reactions include:

• Cognitive impairments such as impaired memory and concentration, confusion, disorientation, and intrusive thoughts or flashbacks.
• Emotional distress, including shock, numbness, fear, anxiety, helplessness, dissociation, anger, anhedonia (loss of pleasure in previously enjoyable activities), and depression.
• Social withdrawal, irritability, and avoidance of reminders of the traumatic event.

In addition, hostages may experience "learned helplessness," feeling completely hopeless and believing that their efforts to improve their circumstances are futile. This can leave them open to criticism after their release, as they may be perceived as failing to resist their captors or attempt to escape.

Some hostages may also develop genuine psychopathology, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depression. In children, the effects of being abducted can be particularly severe, especially if the abduction involved a breach of trust by a previously trusted figure.

Coping Strategies

During captivity, hostages may employ various coping strategies to survive. These include:

• Using distraction techniques such as mental arithmetic, reading, or fantasy.
• Maintaining regular discipline, such as personal hygiene and exercise routines.
• Taking things one day at a time and focusing on short-term goals.
• Trying to find something positive in the situation, such as preparing to write an autobiography or helping others in the same situation.

Some hostages may also develop a bond with their captors, known as Stockholm Syndrome. This paradoxical reaction has been observed in several hostage incidents and can increase the chances of survival. However, it can also lead to feelings of guilt and embarrassment after release, and hostages with this syndrome may be less reliable sources of information for authorities.

Factors Influencing Impact

The impact of hostage-taking can vary depending on several factors:

• Duration of captivity: Longer periods of captivity are generally associated with more severe and prolonged mental and physical health consequences.
• Gender and age: Women, especially younger women, and children are more vulnerable to adverse outcomes.
• Educational level: Lower educational levels are associated with poorer post-release adjustment.
• Previous trauma: Pre-existing mental health conditions or family problems can increase the risk of developing psychopathology after a hostage-taking incident.
• Social support: A supportive family and social environment can enhance resilience and facilitate adjustment after release.

The role of governments in hostage situations

• Diplomatic Efforts: Governments play a crucial role in diplomatic negotiations with hostage-takers, especially in situations involving foreign nationals. They engage in discussions, make demands, and explore options for the safe recovery of hostages. This includes communicating with hostage-takers, their intermediaries, foreign governments, and local communities.
• Intelligence and Information Gathering: Governments have access to intelligence resources and can gather critical information related to hostage-taking incidents. They coordinate with other governments and intelligence agencies to share intelligence and develop strategies for hostage recovery.
• Hostage Recovery Operations: Governments often establish specialized units or task forces to handle hostage situations. These units may include representatives from law enforcement, military, and intelligence agencies. They work together to develop and implement strategies for hostage rescue or negotiation, depending on the specific circumstances.
• Family Engagement and Support: Governments recognize the importance of collaborating with the families of hostages. They provide regular updates, share relevant information, and offer support services to help families cope with the emotional and financial impact of the situation.
• Prevention and Preparedness: Governments take measures to prevent hostage-taking by issuing travel warnings, providing security information, and raising awareness about the risks. They also train their personnel to minimize the risk of being taken hostage and enhance their ability to survive captivity.
• Legal Framework: Governments have enacted laws that criminalize hostage-taking and kidnapping. They pursue prosecution and punishment of individuals or groups responsible for hostage-taking, emphasizing that no concessions will be made to hostage-takers.
• Coordination with Private Entities: Governments may work with private entities, such as non-governmental organizations, to support hostage recovery efforts. This includes providing assistance, sharing information, and coordinating rescue operations.
• International Cooperation: Governments collaborate with foreign governments and international organizations to counter hostage-taking globally. They seek commitments to punish hostage-takers, deter such acts, and enhance global efforts to secure the safe recovery of hostages.
• Financial and Economic Measures: Governments may impose economic sanctions or freeze assets of individuals or entities involved in hostage-taking. They can also work to disrupt financial networks and transactions that support hostage-taking activities.
• Military Response: In certain circumstances, governments may authorize military operations to resolve hostage situations, especially when there is an imminent threat to the life of a hostage.

Governments aim to secure the safe release of hostages and protect their citizens' interests while navigating complex political, legal, and ethical considerations. Each hostage situation is unique, and governments must adapt their approaches accordingly.

The process of prisoner swaps

Prisoner swaps are a common occurrence in Afghanistan, with kidnappers including members of the Taliban and Al-Qaeda. The process of a prisoner swap typically involves the exchange of hostages for money, prisoners, or other demands. Here is a detailed overview of the process:

Identifying Prisoners

The first step in the process is identifying the prisoners who will be involved in the swap. This typically involves negotiations between the groups holding the prisoners and can be a lengthy process, as seen in the case of Mark Frerichs, who was held hostage by the Taliban for over two years before being released in a prisoner swap. During this time, governments and other involved parties work to secure the freedom of the hostages.

Negotiations

The negotiation process is crucial to the success of a prisoner swap. In the case of Afghanistan, the Taliban often use hostage-taking as a tactic to gain political advantage. They may demand the release of specific prisoners, money, or other concessions in exchange for the hostages they are holding. These negotiations can be complex and involve multiple parties, as seen in the case of Safi Rauf, whose release was negotiated by the Biden administration.

Exchange of Prisoners

Once the negotiations are complete and the terms of the swap have been agreed upon, the exchange of prisoners takes place. This process can vary depending on the specific circumstances, but it typically involves a handover of prisoners at a designated location. In some cases, such as the release of Mark Frerichs, the exchange may take place at an airport, with the freed hostages being transported out of the country immediately.

Post-Release Support

After the prisoner swap is complete, the freed hostages often require support to adjust to their new situation. This may include medical care, psychological support, and assistance in reconnecting with their families and communities. In the case of Frerichs, he required time to adjust to life back in the United States and faced challenges such as the loss of his personal identification and savings.

Impact on Geopolitical Relations

Prisoner swaps can have a significant impact on geopolitical relations between the groups involved. In the case of Afghanistan, the Taliban have used prisoner swaps as a way to gain leverage and improve their relationship with the United States. The release of Mark Frerichs, for example, was seen as a "new chapter" in US-Taliban relations by the Taliban's acting foreign minister, Amir Khan Muttaqi.

The risks of travelling to Afghanistan

Afghanistan is currently under the control of the Taliban, which seized power in 2021. The country is extremely dangerous and unstable, and the US and other governments advise their citizens not to travel there. Here are some of the risks of travelling to Afghanistan:

Security and Conflict

The security situation in Afghanistan is highly volatile, with frequent terrorist attacks and an ongoing threat of kidnapping and violent crime. The Taliban is still fighting against rebel groups, and foreigners are at risk of being caught in the crossfire or deliberately targeted. There are Taliban checkpoints on roads throughout the country, and in Kabul, and border crossings may be closed without warning. Women, in particular, face severe restrictions on their movement and are not allowed to travel alone.

Health and Medical Care

Medical facilities in Afghanistan are limited and may be below the standards of other countries. Basic medical care is available in major cities but is scarce in rural areas. Sanitation and hygiene are poor, and ambulances are few and far between. Medical evacuation may not be possible, and most travel insurance policies do not cover travel to Afghanistan.

Local Laws and Customs

Afghanistan is a deeply conservative and traditional country, especially regarding gender roles and behaviour. Women are expected to cover themselves fully in public and are not allowed to travel alone. Homosexuality is not explicitly illegal but individuals may be prosecuted under laws forbidding sodomy, and same-sex relationships are generally forbidden. Public displays of affection may be considered offensive.

Transportation

Public transportation in Afghanistan is often unsafe and unreliable. Roads are in poor condition, with around 79% being unpaved dirt tracks. Travel by road is dangerous, with a high risk of banditry, kidnapping, and vehicle-borne explosive devices. Aviation safety is also a concern, with Afghan-owned airlines banned from EU airspace due to safety issues.

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