Leslie Massey
The French Revolutionary Wars, which began in 1792, saw several great victories over the Austrian and Italian armies. The French, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Fleurus and the Battle of Austerlitz, and the Italians at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto. The Battle of Austerlitz, in particular, was a spectacular victory for the French, with 23,000 Austrian troops surrendering at Ulm and bringing the number of Austrian prisoners to 60,000. Napoleon's tactics, such as the Ulm Maneuver, were well-executed and led to significant successes, including the capture of Vienna and valuable resources. The French victories had far-reaching consequences, including the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Battle | Austerlitz, Vittorio Veneto, Fleurus, Black Mountain, Marengo, Hohenlinden, Jemappes, Arcole, Magenta, Solferino, Treponti, Lodi, Piave River |
| Participants | Napoleon, Tsar Alexander, Austrian Chief of Staff Franz von Weyrother, Kutuzov, Josef Alvinczi, Davidovich, Alvinczi, Bonaparte, Hoche, Count Gyulai, Karl von Urban, Giuseppe Garibaldi, Napoleon III, Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Gaetano Giardino, Enrico Caviglia, Lord Cavan, Armando Diaz, Francis II of Habsburg, Charles Edward Stuart, Maria Theresa, King George, King Charles Albert of Sardinia, Cavour, Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy |
| Location | Austrian rear, Black Forest, Vienna, Italy, Peninsula, Piedmont, Lombardy, Veneto, Sardinia, Tuscany, Mantua, Legnago, Genoa, Milan, Rimini, Alps, Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Egypt, Germany, Frankfurt, Britain, Holland, United Kingdom, Ireland, Austria, Central Europe, Austrian Netherlands, Quadrilateral, Villafranca, Turin, Brescia, Chiese, Solferino, Pozzolengo, Papadopoli Island, Tyrol, Europe, United States, Bucharest, Carpathian region, Venice, Belgrade, Belgrade Forest, Swabia, Ulm, Danube, Russia, Northeast, East, Tyrol, Papadopoli, Piave, Monte Grappa, Adriatic, Bohemia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Romania, Ukraine, Friuli, Hungary, Moldavia, Wallachia |
| Outcome | Surrender of 23,000 Austrian troops, 60,000 Austrian prisoners, 100,000 muskets, 500 cannons, intact bridges across the Danube, indemnity of 40 million francs, creation of the Confederation of the Rhine, dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, French victory, Italian victory, end of the First World War, capture of 5,000 artillery pieces and 350,000 Austro-Hungarian troops, end of the war on the Italian Front, dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, occupation of entire country, capture of Novara, Vercelli, Turin, retreat, victory for the Austrians, end of the war, signing of the Armistice of Villafranca, cession of Lombardy to France, annexation of the United Provinces of Central Italy, compensation of Savoy and Nice to France, abdication of King Charles Albert |
| Other | First Coalition, Second Coalition, Third Coalition, Fourth Coalition, First Italian War of Independence, Second Italian War of Independence, First Battle of Casteldelfino, Silesian Wars, Spanish Succession, Napoleonic Wars, War of Jenkins' Ear, First Carnatic War, First Silesian War, Second Silesian War, Austro-Hungarian Empire, Austro-Hungarian troops, Austro-Italian alliance, Austro-Prussian War, Franco-Sardinian alliance, Franco-Italian alliance, Franco-Spanish fleet, Russian troops, Russian guns, Russian delays, Russian withdrawal, Russian prisoners, Russian corps, French Republic, French invasion, French offensive, French conquest, French ambassador, French troops, French garrison, French forces, French ambassador, <co: 11>French Revolution</co |
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What You'll Learn
Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz
The Battle of Austerlitz, which took place on 2 December 1805, is considered one of Napoleon's greatest victories. The battle occurred near the town of Austerlitz in the Austrian Empire, now Slavkov u Brna in the Czech Republic. It was the first engagement of the War of the Third Coalition, and the French Emperor's victory was so decisive that it set the course of European history for the next decade.
Napoleon's 68,000 troops defeated almost 90,000 Russians and Austrians, forcing Austria to make peace with France and keeping Prussia out of the anti-French alliance. The battle is often cited by military historians as one of Napoleon's tactical masterpieces, comparable to other historic engagements like Hannibal's Cannae (216 BC) or Alexander the Great's Gaugamela (331 BC). The victory at Austerlitz is also significant because it allowed Napoleon to create the Confederation of the Rhine, a collection of German states intended to serve as a buffer zone between France and the eastern powers of Austria, Prussia, and Russia.
The Austro-Russian army was commanded by two emperors, while Napoleon led the French Grande Armée. The Allied (Austro-Russian) plan to attack Napoleon's 'retreating' forces near the town of Austerlitz was only decided upon in the early hours of the morning of the battle, and their situation was described as chaotic. Napoleon, on the other hand, had a well-thought-out plan, and his troops were concentrated around Brünn. He employed diversionary tactics, such as the northern attacks, and his clever strategy, combined with the professionalism of his Grande Armée, led to a stunning victory.
The Allies were driven back in the north and annihilated in the centre. The remnants of the Allied army were scattered, and they abandoned more than 130 guns on the field. The Russians retreated across the fields, but Jean Rapp's horse grenadiers forced them back. The Austro-Russian centre was broken, and the Allied army was cut in two. Victory was ensured when Napoleon moved back to the right, as planned, with some of his guards and Marshal Nicolas-Charles Oudinot's reserve to support Soult and complete the destruction of the enemy's left by attacking from the rear.
The Battle of Austerlitz resulted in heavy casualties on both sides, with around 24,000 troops killed or wounded out of approximately 158,000 involved. The French victory at Austerlitz brought the War of the Third Coalition to an end, with the Peace of Pressburg signed by the French and Austrians later in December 1805. The treaty confirmed the Austrian loss of lands in Italy and Bavaria to France and imposed a significant indemnity on the Habsburgs. It also allowed fleeing Russian troops free passage through hostile territories back to their home soil.
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The Ulm Maneuver
The Ulm Campaign, also known as the Battle of Ulm, was a series of French and Bavarian military manoeuvres and battles to outflank and capture an Austrian army. The campaign took place from 25 September to 20 October 1805, during the War of the Third Coalition. The French Grande Armée, led by Emperor Napoleon I, encircled an Austrian army under General Karl Mack von Leiberich in the city of Ulm. The Austrian army, consisting of about 60,000 to 72,000 men, was forced to surrender on 20 October, with the Russians still about 100 miles away. The French army, on the other hand, had about 210,000 troops organized into seven corps.
Napoleon's strategy for the Ulm Campaign was to split the allied Austrian and Russian armies. He massed the Grande Armée on the northern coast of France, intending to invade England. However, when he learned of Austria and Russia's plans to invade France, he changed his strategy and ordered his army to march to the Rhine. Napoleon's troops crossed the Rhine River and turned south, neutralizing the Austrian army in Bavaria.
The French victory at Ulm was largely due to their superior maneuvering and rapid marching. Napoleon used Marshal Murat's cavalry and the natural terrain to screen his army's movement, allowing him to surround Mack's position without the Austrians realizing it. The fast pace of the Grande Armée was its best weapon, as they quickly encircled and captured the Austrian army.
The Ulm Campaign is considered a brilliant display of military maneuvering and a strategic masterpiece. It highlighted the importance of the corps system and the effectiveness of the manoeuvre sur les derrières, a type of strategic envelopment. The campaign influenced future military plans, including the Schlieffen Plan, which was the German strategy to invade France before World War I.
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The Italian victory at Vittorio Veneto
The Battle of Vittorio Veneto was fought from 24 October to 3 November 1918 (some sources state 4 November) on the Italian Front during World War I. The battle was the last major conflict between Italy and Austria-Hungary during the war.
The Italian offensive comprised three of the five armies lining the front from the Monte Grappa sector to the Adriatic end of the Piave. These armies were to drive across the river towards Vittorio Veneto, cutting off communications between the two opposing Austrian armies. The Italian armies in the mountains were to hold the front line and follow up on the enemy's retreat. The task of opening the attack and taking on the strongest positions fell to the Fourth Army, led by Lieutenant-General Gaetano Giardino, on the Grappa. The Twelfth Army, consisting of one French and three Italian divisions, was commanded by Lieutenant-General Enrico Caviglia, with the Tenth Army (led by Lord Cavan) protecting his right flank.
The Italian Eighth Army, which managed to cross the Piave with the help of elite swimmers from the Arditi Corps, played a crucial role in the victory. They took Vittorio Veneto on 25 October, pushing towards the Tagliamento River. Trieste was captured by an amphibious expedition on 3 November. The capture of Vittorio Veneto split the Austro-Hungarian armies, with the Allies advancing 24km along a 56km front. A truce was agreed upon on 2 November, and an armistice came into effect the following day.
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The French Revolutionary Wars
The War of the First Coalition (1792–1797) was the first stage of the French Revolutionary Wars. In 1792, several European powers formed an alliance against Republican France, including Austria, Prussia, Russia, Spain, and Great Britain. The first major operation was the annexation of the County of Nice and the Duchy of Savoy, both states of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, by 30,000 French troops. In 1793, the Republican forces were withdrawn to deal with a revolt in Lyon, triggering a counter-invasion of Savoy by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. In the spring of 1793, a series of victories by the French Revolutionary Army abruptly ended with defeat at Neerwinden. The French suffered additional defeats for the remainder of the year, allowing the Jacobins to rise to power and impose the Reign of Terror to unify the nation.
In 1794, the situation improved dramatically for the French as huge victories were secured at Fleurus against the Austrians and Dutch, and at the Black Mountain against the Spanish. By 1795, the French had captured the Austrian Netherlands and the Dutch Republic. Napoleon Bonaparte began his first campaign in Italy in April 1796, and in less than a year, French armies under his command destroyed the Habsburg forces and evicted them from the Italian peninsula, winning almost every battle and capturing 150,000 prisoners. Napoleon's Italian Campaign forced Austria to surrender, signing the Treaty of Campo Formio in October 1797.
In 1798, Napoleon proposed an invasion of Egypt with the intention of taking control of the overland route to India. He won a smashing victory at the Pyramids, but weeks later, Nelson discovered and destroyed his fleet, stranding Napoleon's army of 25,000 in Egypt. Napoleon marched into Syria, winning several great victories against the Turks and nearly succeeding in taking the town of Acre. However, when this effort failed, he returned to France, and the following year, Britain reconquered Egypt and Malta.
The War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802) was the second stage of the French Revolutionary Wars. By 1802, the French Republic had conquered the Low Countries, northern Italy, and parts of the Rhineland. Some of these lands were incorporated into France directly, while others became French client states known as 'sister republics'. The conflict soon escalated with Austrian and Neapolitan forces being mobilized for an invasion of southern France to recover Nice and strike into Provence. However, under the tactical command of André Masséna, the French launched the Saorgio Offensive in April 1794, driving back the Allied force and capturing the mountain passes that led into Piedmont.
In June 1800, the French secured a decisive victory at the Battle of Marengo, after which the Austrians withdrew from the Italian peninsula once again. Another crushing French victory at Hohenlinden in Bavaria forced the Austrians to seek peace for a second time, leading to the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801. With Austria and Russia out of the war, Britain found itself increasingly isolated and agreed to the Treaty of Amiens with Napoleon's government in 1802, concluding the Revolutionary Wars.
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The Sardinian Army's role in the Second Italian War of Independence
The Sardinian Army played a crucial role in the Second Italian War of Independence, which began in 1859. The war was sparked by tensions between Sardinia and Austria, with Sardinia seeking to unify the Italian Peninsula under the House of Savoy. To achieve this, Sardinia formed a secret alliance with France, agreeing to cede Savoy and Nice to France in exchange for military support against Austria.
Sardinia mobilised its army in March 1859, prompting Austria to issue an ultimatum demanding the demobilisation of the Sardinian forces. When Sardinia refused, Austria declared war. The Sardinian Army, under the command of Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy, consisted of approximately 70,000 soldiers, 4,000 horsemen, and 90 guns, divided into five divisions. Two volunteer formations, the Cacciatori delle Alpi and the Cacciatori degli Appennini, also fought alongside the Sardinian Army.
Despite their larger numbers, the Austrian forces, led by Field Marshal Ferenc Graf Gyulay, initially adopted a cautious approach, marching around the Ticino River. However, heavy rains slowed their advance as the Piedmontese flooded the rice fields in front of them. The Austrians captured Novara and Vercelli and advanced on Turin. But the Sardinian Army, in coordination with French forces, strengthened their defences, forcing the Austrians to halt and eventually fall back.
The Battle of Magenta on 4 June 1859 marked a significant victory for the Sardinian Army and their French allies, pushing the Austrian forces back to Lombardy. This was followed by another decisive victory at the Battle of Solferino on 24 June, which ended the war. The Armistice of Villafranca was signed on 12 July, with Austria ceding Lombardy to France, which then gave it to Sardinia. The Sardinian Army's role in these battles was instrumental in achieving these favourable outcomes for Sardinia, contributing to the unification of the Italian Peninsula.
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Frequently asked questions
The French victory at the Battle of Austerlitz led to the surrender of 23,000 Austrian troops, bringing the total number of Austrian prisoners to 60,000. The French also gained 100,000 muskets, 500 cannons, and control of bridges across the Danube. This victory paved the way for the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine, a group of German states serving as a buffer between France and eastern powers.
Napoleon utilised a wheeling movement, positioning his forces to the rear of the Austrian army while launching cavalry attacks through the Black Forest, keeping the Austrians at bay. This strategic manoeuvre, known as the Ulm Manoeuvre, was executed successfully and played a crucial role in the French victory.
During the First Italian War of Independence in 1848, the Italians achieved initial victories under the leadership of King Charles Albert of Sardinia. They aimed to unite Sardinia with the Austrian lands of Lombardy-Venetia in Northern Italy. However, these victories were later reversed as the Austrian military reorganised its forces.
The Battle of Vittorio Veneto resulted in a decisive victory for the Royal Italian Army, marking the end of the war on the Italian Front during World War I. This victory led to the capture of over 5,000 artillery pieces and more than 350,000 Austro-Hungarian troops, including Germans, Czechs, Slovaks, South Slavs, Poles, Romanians, Ukrainians, and Italians. The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire was secured, contributing to the conclusion of World War I shortly after.
