Lyla Lindsey
Austria has a history of reforms, with Maria Theresa implementing changes to the army, financial and educational systems in the 18th century. In the 20th century, Hitler, who was Austrian, unified Austria with Germany as a state in the German Reich, but he did not attempt to reform Austria-Hungary. Austrians have shown opposition to EU enlargement, with the far-right Freedom Party winning the country's 2017 election. The country's high respect for the rule of law and soft skepticism towards the EU makes it unlikely to defy EU law.
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What You'll Learn
Hitler's hatred for Austria-Hungary
It is difficult to ascertain whether Hitler specifically hated Austria-Hungary, but he certainly wanted to redraw the map of post-World War I Europe, and his expansionary policies led to the annexation of Austria and the invasion of Poland, which started World War II. Hitler was born in Austria in 1889 and lived in Vienna from 1907 to 1913, a city with a large Jewish community and a hotbed of ethnic conflict. It was here that he developed his political ideas, although scholars debate the extent to which his anti-Semitism was influenced by the prevalent anti-Jewish sentiment in the city. Hitler volunteered to serve in the German Army at the start of World War I, and at the end of the war, he, like many other German soldiers, could not come to terms with the defeat of the German Empire. The German Army command spread the myth that they had not lost the war on the battlefield but had been betrayed, or 'stabbed in the back' as it was called, by the Jews and communists, who had supposedly brought a left-wing government to power. Hitler fully embraced this myth, and by blaming the Jews for Germany's defeat, he created a stereotypical enemy.
The dissolution of Austria-Hungary was a significant political event, catalysed by World War I, crop failure, starvation, and an economic crisis. The Austro-Hungarian Empire had been weakened by a growing divide between Hungarian and Austrian interests, and the rise of nationalism and socialism further contributed to its collapse. The multiethnic empire disintegrated as nationalist movements pressed for full independence, and the various ethnicities refused to keep fighting for a lost cause. The defeat in World War I and the subsequent turmoil provided fertile ground for Hitler's ideology and his desire to reshape Europe.
Hitler's annexation of Austria, known as the Anschluss, demonstrated his disregard for the post-World War I order and international treaties that expressly forbade the unification of Austria and Germany. European leaders were concerned about the implications of a united Germany and Austria, but their failure to act emboldened Hitler to pursue further territorial expansion. The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the ensuing political vacuum presented an opportunity for Hitler to realise his expansionist ambitions and reshape the map of Europe according to his nationalist and racist ideology.
While it is challenging to determine if Hitler specifically hated Austria-Hungary, the dissolution of the empire and the subsequent instability in the region undoubtedly aligned with his expansionist agenda and provided him with the means to pursue his nationalist and racist goals.
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Hitler's unification of Austria and Germany
After World War I, the people of Austria and Germany shared a desire to unite as a single German entity, abandoning Prussia's control. This sentiment was driven by the belief that Austria, stripped of its imperial land, was economically non-viable. Additionally, the idea of grouping all Germans into one nation-state had been a subject of debate since the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. Hitler, himself an Austrian, capitalized on these sentiments and made the unification of all Germans in a "Greater Germany" a central tenet of Nazi ideology, known as "Heim ins Reich" ("back home to the realm").
Hitler's rise to power in Germany in 1933 further intensified the push for unification. Nazi agents cultivated pro-unification tendencies in Austria and worked to undermine the Austrian government, which opposed unification. In early 1938, Austrian Nazis conspired to seize the Austrian government by force and unite with Nazi Germany. Austrian Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg attempted to maintain his country's independence but was pressured by Hitler to appoint top Austrian Nazis to his cabinet.
Faced with increasing pressure from pro-unification activists, Schuschnigg announced a referendum on unification versus maintaining Austrian sovereignty, scheduled for March 13, 1938. Hitler threatened an invasion and secretly pressured Schuschnigg to resign, who called for a national vote on March 9. Before the plebiscite could take place, Schuschnigg succumbed to Nazi coercion and resigned on March 11, pleading with Austrian forces not to resist. On March 12, Hitler crossed the border into Austria, accompanied by German troops, and was greeted by enthusiastic crowds. The annexation of Austria was complete, and a plebiscite held on April 10 yielded a manipulated result of 99.7% approval.
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Maria Theresa's financial and military reforms
Maria Theresa, born in 1717, was the ruler of Austria and Bohemia, though she shared power with her husband, Emperor Francis I, and her eldest son, Emperor Joseph II. She was a conservative in matters of state and religion, but she implemented significant reforms to strengthen Austria's military and bureaucratic efficiency.
In the military sphere, Maria Theresa reorganised Austria's ramshackle military, establishing the Court Council of War and the Theresian Military Academy in Wiener Neustadt to train a new generation of officers on the most up-to-date principles. The success of these changes was confirmed by the Austrian victory at Kolín in 1757. She also employed Friedrich Wilhelm von Haugwitz, who modernised the empire by creating a standing army of 108,000 men, funded by 14 million florins extracted from crown lands. Haugwitz also instituted the taxation of the nobility, who had previously been untaxed.
In terms of financial reforms, Maria Theresa doubled state revenue from 20 to 40 million florins between 1754 and 1764, though her attempt to tax the clergy was only partially successful. These reforms greatly improved the economy. She also founded the Hofkammer in 1762, a ministry of finances that controlled all revenues from the monarchy, and the Hofrechenskammer, or exchequer, which handled all financial accounts. By 1775, the Habsburg monarchy achieved its first balanced budget, and by 1780, state revenue had reached 50 million florins.
Maria Theresa also implemented significant institutional and educational reforms. She founded the Supreme Judiciary as a court of final appeal for all hereditary lands and made the promotion of education a priority, initially focused on the wealthier classes. She permitted non-Catholics to attend university and allowed the introduction of secular subjects, such as law, influencing the decline of theology as the main foundation of university education. She also established educational institutions to prepare officials for work in the state bureaucracy, including the Theresianum in Vienna and an Oriental Academy for future diplomats.
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Austria's view of Hungarians as traitors
Austria and Hungary have a long shared history, with the ruling dynasty of Austria, the Habsburgs, inheriting the Hungarian throne in the 16th century. Both countries were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire from 1867 to 1918. The two countries established diplomatic relations in 1921, after their separation.
The Germanic peoples of Austria generally viewed the Hungarians as traitors and a prime driver of the fall of Austria-Hungary. Hungarians were seen as weakening the overall state by refusing reforms and withholding food during World War I. This bitterness and blame persisted, and by the time of World War II, Austria was in no position to attempt to conquer Hungary or regain its former empire.
The Hungarians had to make several concessions after World War I, ceding their westernmost part, inhabited by Germans, to Austria. This area, called Burgenland by the Austrians, was handed over in 1921, despite Hungarian resistance and a successful referendum. During World War II, Hungary's shift towards a communist regime made Austrian politicians cautious in their relations with the Communist Party of Austria. However, during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, Austrians supported the revolutionaries, and tens of thousands of Hungarian refugees fled to Austria, where they were received with great sympathy.
Despite historical tensions, the two countries today share a 366-kilometre border that can be crossed anywhere without control due to the Schengen Agreement. Hungarian is still used as an official language in some communities of Burgenland, and the two countries are members of the European Union, maintaining neighbourly relations.
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Hungarians' refusal to reform
The Hungarians' refusal to reform is often cited as one of the reasons for the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Germanic peoples of Austria viewed the Hungarians with suspicion, believing that they weakened the overall state by refusing reforms, both military and domestic. The Hungarians' refusal to reform was also a significant factor in the Hungarian Revolutions of 1848 and 1956.
In the mid-1830s, the journalist Lajos Kossuth became a prominent figure in the Hungarian Parliament. He advocated for broader parliamentary democracy, rapid industrialization, general taxation, economic expansion through exports, and the abolition of serfdom and aristocratic privileges. Kossuth and his followers supported liberal internationalism and believed in forming alliances with countries and political forces that shared their modern liberal values. They stood against the conservatives, who usually opposed most reforms. However, the government attempted to suppress the reform movement by arresting and imprisoning its leaders, including Kossuth.
The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 was sparked by the refusal of Franz Joseph I of Austria to recognize the reforms known as the "April Laws", which included the demands for broader parliamentary democracy and the abolition of serfdom. The revolution ultimately failed, and Franz Joseph revoked all concessions and outlawed the Hungarian government and its leaders.
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was a response to the geopolitical domination of Hungary by the USSR and the imposition of Soviet-style economic policies, which fueled anti-Soviet political discontent. The revolution began when university students appealed to the civil populace to join them in protesting against the Stalinist government, and their demands included calls for political and economic reforms. Despite the overthrow of the Stalinist government, the subsequent Nagy government's political and socio-economic reforms were undermined by Rákosi, the General Secretary of the Hungarian Communist Party, who had the support of the USSR.
In addition to these historical examples, Hungary under Prime Minister Viktor Orbán has also been noted for its refusal to reform in more recent times. Orbán has been accused of autocratic tendencies, including replacing civil servants with loyalists, destroying the free press, politicizing the court system, and changing the constitution to consolidate power.
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Frequently asked questions
Hitler viewed the Austro-Hungarian empire as weak and an artificial nation. He also despised the multiculturalism of the empire.
The Germanic peoples of Austria viewed Hungarians as traitors and blamed them for the fall of Austria-Hungary. Hungarians refused reforms and withheld food from Austria during World War I.
Hungary had no interest in rejoining Austria, and Austria would not welcome Hungary as an equal. This led to a lack of desire to reform the Austro-Hungarian empire.
Hitler unified Austria and Germany as a state in the German Reich, gaining popularity. He did not want a multi-ethnic empire, and Austria was in no position to create an empire after World War I.
Austria has a high level of respect for the rule of law and is unlikely to defy EU law. Austrians have exhibited opposition to enlargement in the EU and have concerns about the free movement of workers.
