Bahrain's Political Future: Elections Or Status Quo?

Bahrain held its parliamentary elections on November 12, 2022, to elect 40 members of the Council of Representatives, with a second round in some constituencies on November 19. The elections were marred by allegations of political repression, with rights groups claiming that the Bahraini authorities had infringed upon human rights, curtailed civil society, banned political opposition parties, and shut down independent media. Bahrain's electoral framework has been criticized for deliberately underrepresenting Shiites, who form a majority of the citizen population, and for favoring certain political societies over others. The government has also been accused of imprisoning opposition leaders and dissidents, stripping them of their citizenship, and implementing restrictive legislation that curbs freedom of expression and assembly.

The 2022 Bahraini general election

Background

Bahrain's general elections were held on 12 November 2022, with a second round in some constituencies on 19 November. The elections were to choose the 40 members of the Council of Representatives, the lower house of parliament, which passes legislation proposed by the king and his cabinet. The upper chamber, the Consultative Council, is appointed by the king and can block legislation passed by the lower house.

Criticism

Voter Eligibility

Only Bahraini citizens were entitled to contest and vote in the elections. Many political dissidents were stripped of their Bahraini citizenship, and citizens could be disqualified from voting if they had been members of banned opposition parties, had previously resigned from parliament, or had been sentenced to more than six months in prison. Voters who had not voted in previous elections were not included on the voter lists but were eligible to register. Overall, these rules disenfranchised 21.5% of Bahraini citizens, a higher proportion than in the 2018 elections.

Candidates

A total of 330 candidates contested the elections, of which 73 were women, an increase from 293 candidates in 2018. However, former members of previously legal opposition parties, such as Wa'd, al-Wefaq, and Amal, were banned from standing for election and from taking leadership positions in civil society organisations. This rule was estimated to affect 6,000-11,000 citizens, according to Human Rights Watch.

Election Restrictions

The government imposed several restrictions on electoral activity, including banning false or confusing statements that could affect the election and unlicensed public gatherings or demonstrations. They also introduced new legislation that prohibited electoral activity that "infringes on public security, public morals, religious beliefs, or the customs prevalent in society". Bahrainis were also forbidden from organising meetings and giving election speeches in specific locations, such as houses of worship, public places reserved for public services, educational institutions, and historic buildings.

Turnout

The government reported a 73% turnout among eligible voters, an increase from 67% in the 2018 election. However, it is important to note that the electorate represented less than a quarter of Bahrain's total population of 1.5 million, as most residents do not have citizenship.

Political repression and rights violations

Bahrain has been criticised by Amnesty International for holding its 2022 parliamentary and municipal elections in an "environment of political repression. The elections, which took place on 12 November, were the second to be held since the Bahraini authorities banned political opposition parties and blocked their members from running for office.

Since 2016, the Bahraini government has intensified its campaign to eliminate political opposition, banning opposition parties that had previously operated legally and imprisoning prominent opposition leaders. The government has also outlawed independent media, leaving Bahrain without any non-imprisoned political opposition leaders or independent media willing to openly criticise the government.

In a statement, Amnesty International's Deputy Regional Director for the Middle East and North Africa, Amna Guellali, said:

> "Over the past 11 years, the Bahraini authorities have crushed all forms of dissent and severely clamped down on the rights to freedom of expression, peaceful assembly and association...In Bahrain today, there is no genuine, political opposition and no independent media, while critical human rights organizations are unable to operate freely inside the country."

Restrictions on Freedom of Expression, Assembly, and Association

The Bahraini government continues to impose restrictions on freedom of expression, assembly, and association. In March 2023, four men, including a prominent activist and lawyer, were arrested for their social media posts. Ebrahim Al-Mannai, one of the men arrested, had posted on Twitter that the Bahraini government should reform its parliament if it wanted to showcase it to the world.

Bahrain has also purchased and used spyware, such as NSO Group's Pegasus spyware, to target government critics and human rights defenders.

Discrimination Against Shia Muslims

The Bahraini government has a history of discriminating against its Shia Muslim majority population, including by targeting Shia clerics and arresting and prosecuting human rights defenders from Shia backgrounds. UN experts have expressed concern that members of the Shia community are "clearly being targeted on the basis of their religion".

In June 2023, the government imposed restrictions and set up checkpoints around Al-Diraz village, where the main mosque for the Shia community is located, blocking worshippers from attending Friday prayers. These access restrictions followed the brief detention of a prominent Shia cleric, Sheikh Mohammad Sanqoor, who often gave sermons at the mosque.

Women's Rights

Women in Bahrain face discrimination in law and in practice. Under the 2017 Family Law, women are required to obey their husbands and can lose their right to spousal maintenance if they are deemed "disobedient" or "recalcitrant" by a court. Women also cannot act as their child's guardian, even if the child's father has passed away or if a court orders that the child resides primarily with her.

The 1963 citizenship act prohibits women from conferring their nationality to their children if the father is non-Bahraini. Women also face practical discrimination, such as needing parental consent to live in campus accommodation at university.

In February 2024, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women published a report expressing concern about the "shrinking space for women human rights defenders" and "reports of reprisals against them, including intimidation, harassment, threats, physical abuse, sexual violence, travel bans and arbitrary detention".

The role of the King of Bahrain

The King of Bahrain is the monarch and head of state of the Kingdom of Bahrain. The current king, Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa, ascended to the throne in 1999, succeeding his father, Sheikh Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa. In 2002, King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa transitioned Bahrain from an emirate to a kingdom, proclaiming himself the first king.

The king of Bahrain holds extensive powers and plays a crucial role in the country's governance. One of his primary responsibilities is appointing the prime minister and the cabinet. He also serves as the Commander-in-Chief of the Bahrain Defence Force (BDF), holding supreme command over the country's military. Additionally, the king chairs the Higher Judicial Council and has the authority to appoint the parliament's upper house, known as the Shura Council or the Consultative Council. This council has the power to block legislation passed by the lower house, allowing the king significant influence over the legislative process.

King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa has been recognised for his dedication to enhancing Bahrain's defence capabilities and modernising the country's military infrastructure. He played a pivotal role in establishing the Bahrain Amiri Air Force and has an enduring interest in aviation and defence. The king's foreign policy has focused on strengthening Bahrain's connections with partners and promoting stability in the Middle East, particularly within the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC).

In terms of social changes and human rights, King Hamad has been an advocate for women's rights, pushing for opportunities and voting rights. His reign has been marked by a series of progressive reforms, including the introduction of the Economic Vision 2030 initiative, which aims to diversify Bahrain's economy, reduce its reliance on oil, and promote development.

The king's family life is also notable, with four wives and twelve children, including seven sons and five daughters. His eldest son, Prince Salman, holds positions as both Prime Minister and Deputy Supreme Commander of the Bahrain Defense Force. King Hamad's governance style reflects his focus on family values, often drawing parallels between the well-being of Bahrain's citizens and caring for his family.

International condemnation of the elections

Bahrain's parliamentary elections, held on 12 November 2022, have been internationally condemned as a sham. Rights groups, including Amnesty International, have criticised the elections for being held in an environment of political repression, with the Bahrain authorities infringing upon human rights, curtailing civil society, banning political opposition parties, and shuttering independent media.

Amnesty International stated that the Bahraini authorities have, over the past 11 years, "crushed all forms of dissent and severely clamped down on the rights to freedom of expression, peaceful assembly and association". They highlighted the absence of any genuine political opposition and independent media in the country, as well as the inability of critical human rights organisations to operate freely.

The Bahrain Institute for Rights and Democracy, based in London, joined the condemnation, calling the elections a "sham". The group emphasised that Bahrain's political system does not allow citizens to peacefully and legally seek constitutional change.

The US was urged by the Baharani-American human rights group Americans for Democracy & Human Rights in Bahrain (ADHRB) to pivot away from its close relationship with Bahrain, citing the non-democratic nature of the election.

The international criticism also extended to Bahrain's electoral framework, which is seen as unfair due to the deliberate underrepresentation of Shiites in the electoral districts. This marginalisation of the Shiite population, who form a majority of the citizenry, further underscores the undemocratic nature of the elections.

The international community's condemnation of the Bahrain elections highlights a broad consensus that the country's political system falls short of democratic ideals and infringes upon the fundamental rights of its citizens.

The impact of the election on US-Bahrain relations

The impact of the 2022 election on US-Bahrain relations

The 2022 Bahraini general election, held on November 12, 2022, to elect 40 members of the Council of Representatives, has been criticized as a sham by rights groups and the US. The election took place amidst political repression, with the Bahrain authorities infringing upon human rights, curtailing civil society, banning political opposition parties, and shutting down independent media. This has raised concerns about the legitimacy of the election and the state of democracy in Bahrain, a long-standing American ally.

The US and Bahrain have a strong bilateral alliance, with Bahrain hosting the US Fifth Fleet. However, the election has strained this relationship, as the US has been urged to reconsider its close ties with Bahrain due to the undemocratic nature of the election. The US values democracy and human rights as pillars of its foreign policy, and the lack of free and fair elections in Bahrain could lead to increased instability and a potential shift in US-Bahrain relations.

The Tom Lantos Human Rights Commission, a bipartisan body in the US House of Representatives, has expressed concern about the conditions necessary for a free and fair election in Bahrain. They have urged the King of Bahrain to take steps to ensure the credibility of the elections, including restoring the political rights of the opposition, redrawing electoral districts, guaranteeing the presence of election observers, and releasing imprisoned opposition leaders. Failure to address these issues could lead to more coercive measures by the US, such as blocking arms sales to Bahrain.

Bahrain's response to these criticisms will be crucial in determining the future trajectory of US-Bahrain relations. While Bahrain has defended its electoral process, claiming to be a "vibrant democracy," it is yet to be seen if they will implement the recommended reforms. The US may reconsider its relationship with Bahrain if the necessary steps towards a more democratic and inclusive election are not taken.

The impact of the 2024 election on US-Bahrain relations

With the 2024 elections approaching, there are concerns about the state of democracy and human rights in Bahrain. Amnesty International has highlighted ongoing political repression, rights violations, and the absence of a genuine political opposition or independent media. These factors could impact the legitimacy of the upcoming elections and strain US-Bahrain relations further.

The US has not yet released an official statement regarding the upcoming elections, but it is likely that they will continue to urge Bahrain to uphold democratic values and ensure free and fair elections. The credibility of the 2024 elections will be crucial in determining the future of US-Bahrain relations, with potential consequences for bilateral cooperation and security alliances.

Frequently asked questions