Damon Mcknight
Leopold I, born on June 9, 1640, in Vienna, was the Holy Roman Emperor whose lengthy reign (1658-1705) was marked by conflicts with the Turks and the French. The war with the Turks, also known as the Great Turkish War (1683-1699), was a result of interference in Transylvania by the Ottoman Empire and the unstable situation in Hungary, which the Ottomans exploited. The war culminated in the second siege of Vienna in 1683, which was successfully defended by Leopold's forces. Despite fleeing Vienna during the siege, Leopold emerged victorious in the east, recovering much of the Kingdom of Hungary, which had previously fallen under Turkish rule.
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What You'll Learn
The Second Northern War (1655-1660)
Leopold I of Austria was involved in conflicts with the Ottoman Empire during the Great Turkish War (1683-1699). Leopold's first war was the Second Northern War (1655-1660).
The war began when Charles X Gustav of Sweden invaded and occupied western Poland-Lithuania, with the help of allies including György II Rákóczi, Prince of Transylvania. The rapid Swedish advance became known in Poland as the Swedish Deluge. The Polish-Lithuanian regular armies surrendered and the Polish king, John II Casimir Vasa, fled to the Habsburgs. The Dutch Republic, which was not officially part of the Polish-Danish alliance, seized the colony of New Sweden in 1655.
Throughout 1659, Sweden defended its strongholds in Denmark and on the southern Baltic shore. When Charles X Gustav died in February 1660, his successor agreed to the Treaty of Oliva with Poland-Lithuania, the Habsburgs, and Brandenburg in April, and the Treaty of Copenhagen with Denmark in May. Sweden kept most of her gains from Roskilde, and the Duchy of Prussia became a sovereign state. The parties largely returned to the status quo.
The Second Northern War was one of a series of conflicts in the 17th century involving Sweden, Poland, Brandenburg, Russia, Transylvania, and the Cossacks. The term "Second Northern War" was originally coined in Polish historiography and has since been adopted by German and English historiography.
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The Ottoman Empire's interference in Transylvania
Transylvania's strategic location in Eastern Europe made it a coveted prize for rival empires, including the Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburgs. The region's independence was often threatened by these competing powers, leading to conflicts and political maneuvering. The Ottoman Empire's interference in Transylvania's affairs often caused tension and contributed to the outbreak of wars. For example, the Long War, which initially started as a Christian alliance against the Turks, eventually drew Transylvania into a four-sided conflict involving the Transylvanians, Habsburgs, Ottomans, and the voivode of Wallachia, Michael the Brave.
During the reign of György Rákóczi II, the Ottomans attempted to curb Transylvania's growing power by stripping it of its western territory and installing Mihály Apafi as prince in 1662. This prompted Prince John Kemény to proclaim Transylvania's secession from the Ottomans in 1661 and appeal for help from Vienna. However, a secret Habsburg-Ottoman agreement prevented the Habsburgs from providing assistance, and Transylvania became a client state of the Ottoman Empire.
The tension between the Holy Roman Empire and the Ottoman Empire escalated during the Great Turkish War (1683-1699). The Ottoman army, led by Grand Vizier Kara Mustapha, laid siege to Vienna in 1683, forcing Emperor Leopold I to flee. With the help of allies, including the King of Poland, John III Sobieski, the Imperial Army successfully defended Vienna, marking a significant victory for Leopold I.
Following the victory at Vienna, Leopold I sought to expand his influence in the region and envisioned a new Hungarian empire under Austrian control. The subsequent decades saw a back-and-forth between the Ottomans and the Habsburgs, with cities like Buda falling to Imperialist armies and the Habsburgs dictating peace terms to their Ottoman enemies. However, the stubbornness of Sultan Mehmed IV prolonged the conflict, leading to continued battles and the eventual signing of the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699.
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The Great Turkish War (1683-1699)
The war was sparked by the Ottoman Empire's desire to capture the city of Vienna, which held control over important trade routes between southern Europe and western Europe, as well as between the Eastern Mediterranean and Germany. In the spring of 1683, a large Ottoman army led by Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa marched towards Vienna, laying siege to the city in July. The Ottoman forces, numbering around 82,000, faced around 16,000 troops and citizens defending the city under Ernst Rüdiger Graf von Starhemberg. The siege lasted three months, during which Leopold I, the Holy Roman Emperor, took refuge in Passau. In September 1683, an allied army led by the King of Poland, John III Sobieski, defeated the Ottomans and lifted the siege.
Following the victory at Vienna, Leopold sought to expand his influence in the region, aiming to establish a Hungarian empire under Austrian control. With the support of the Holy League, the Imperial forces scored several victories against the Ottomans, including the Battle of Buda in 1686 and the Battle of Mohács in 1687. However, the war was not without setbacks for the Holy League. In 1690, the Sultan launched a reconstructed army of 80,000 Turks towards Belgrade, retaking the city. This, coupled with the ongoing Nine Years' War against France, led to a stalemate in the conflict.
The tide turned again in 1697 with the Battle of Zenta, where the Holy League decisively defeated the Ottomans, killing over 30,000 of their forces. This defeat ultimately led to the signing of the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699, bringing an end to the Great Turkish War. As a result of the treaty, the Ottoman Empire ceded significant territories, including most of Hungary, Transylvania, and Slavonia, as well as parts of Croatia and the western Balkans, to the Habsburg Monarchy. The war marked the first instance of Russia joining an alliance with Western Europe and the beginning of a series of Russo-Turkish Wars.
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The Turkish siege of Vienna (1683)
The Turkish siege of Vienna in 1683 was a pivotal event in European history, changing the course of Austrian and European history. It was a key moment in the long-running conflict between the Habsburgs and the Ottoman Empire. The siege began on July 14, 1683, when Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha led an Ottoman army of approximately 90,000 to 300,000 men to lay siege to the city. The Viennese garrison, led by Ernst Rüdiger Graf von Starhemberg, consisted of only 15,000 soldiers, 8,700 volunteers, and 370 cannons. The Ottoman army far outnumbered the defenders.
Emperor Leopold I fled Vienna for Passau with his court and 60,000 Viennese, while Charles V, Duke of Lorraine, withdrew his force of 20,000 towards Linz. The siege lasted three months, from July to September, and became a critical event in the history of the Habsburg Monarchy. The King of Poland, John III Sobieski, prepared a relief expedition to Vienna, honouring his obligations under the 1683 Treaty of Warsaw. The Polish army, along with German and Austrian troops, joined forces with the Imperial Army, which was commanded by Charles, Duke of Lorraine, Leopold's brother-in-law.
On September 12, 1683, the allied army fell upon the enemy and completely routed them, saving Vienna. The victory was celebrated as a triumph of Christendom in contemporary propaganda. The defeat of the Ottoman Army outside the gates of Vienna marked the beginning of the decline of the Ottoman Empire. After the victory, Leopold envisioned a new Hungarian empire under Austrian control. The city of Buda fell to an Imperialist army in 1686, and the Habsburgs dictated peace to their enemies. However, the stubbornness of Sultan Mehmed IV fuelled the Imperialist war machine, and the conflict continued.
The Turkish siege of Vienna in 1683 was a significant event that shaped the future of Europe and the Ottoman Empire. It was a pivotal moment in the centuries-long conflict between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans, with the victory in 1683 setting the stage for further expansion and conflict in the region.
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The Treaty of Karlowitz (1699)
The Treaty of Karlowitz, signed on 26 January 1699, marked the end of the Great Turkish War (1683-1699) between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League (a coalition of the Holy Roman Empire, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Republic of Venice, and Peter the Great, the Tsar of Russia). The treaty was a significant event, bringing an end to four centuries of Ottoman expansion in Europe and marking the first substantial loss of territory for the Ottoman Empire on the continent. It also established the Habsburg monarchy as the dominant power in the region.
The treaty was signed following a two-month peace congress between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League. For the first time, the Turks agreed to negotiate with a coalition of European nations and accept mediation by neutral powers. The treaty provided for a 25-year settlement between the Emperor Leopold I and the Sultan, with similar periods stipulated with Venice and Poland. The Austro-Turkish treaty stipulated that the 'peace reconciliation' would remain 'perpetual' and did not limit its term.
The Treaty of Karlowitz resulted in the transfer of Transylvania and much of Hungary from Turkish to Austrian control, significantly diminishing Turkish influence in east-central Europe. Venice obtained most of Dalmatia and the Peloponnese peninsula of southern Greece (known as the Morea), while Poland regained territories in Ukraine and Podolia, which had been lost to the Turks in 1672. The Ottomans retained Belgrade, the Banat of Temesvár, and suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia.
The acquisition of Hungarian territories at Karlowitz enlarged the Habsburg monarchy to its largest extent at that time, cementing the Archduchy of Austria as a dominant regional power. The treaty was a watershed moment for the Ottoman Empire, marking the first time it had lost significant amounts of territory after centuries of expansionism in Europe. The shift in the balance of power between the Ottoman Empire and its Christian opponents, particularly the Austrian Habsburgs and Russia, was also reflected in the legal design of the peace settlement, which brought legal relations between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans more in line with European law and customs.
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Frequently asked questions
Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, went to war with the Turks, or the Ottoman Empire, during the Great Turkish War (1683-1699). The conflict was a result of the Ottoman Empire's interference in Transylvania and its desire to introduce the Counter-Reformation in Hungary.
The war ended with the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699, which saw the Ottoman Empire cede significant territories to Leopold I, including almost all of the Kingdom of Hungary. This victory established Austria as a great European power.
A notable battle was the siege of Vienna in 1683, where the Turks attempted to capture the city for the second time in its history. The siege was a key event in the history of the Habsburg Monarchy, as its collapse would have ended Habsburg influence in the Balkans. The Turks were defeated by an allied army led by the King of Poland, John III Sobieski.
The war had significant consequences for Leopold I and the region. The successful defence of Vienna was celebrated as a victory of Christendom in contemporary propaganda. Leopold's forces went on the offensive, capturing Buda in 1686 and crushing the Turks at the Battle of Mohacs in 1687. The war also inflamed anti-Habsburg sentiment among the Hungarian nobility, who resented the introduction of a centralized Habsburg government.
