The Elusive Peace: Navigating The Complexities Of War In Afghanistan

Afghanistan's location, rough terrain, and multiple ethnic groups and tribes make it a challenging place to wage war. The country has been the centre of competing foreign powers for more than a century.

Afghanistan's strategic location—it connects Central Asia and the Middle East to South and East Asia—makes it a kind of a policy way station towards a political agenda. So when large empires go to war in Afghanistan, they come up against other countries' attempts to exert their own influence in the region.

There are also many other factors that make Afghanistan a tough place to wage war in. Logistically, the terrain makes it difficult to move people and equipment. In addition, the geographic factors of the terrain inform cultural values, meaning that outside forces don't always understand the unique relationship between the country's 14 recognised ethnic groups and its various tribes.

During its military engagement in Afghanistan, US forces emphasised working with Pashtuns in creating a government in Afghanistan. But although they're the ethnic majority, Pashtuns are spread across multiethnic and multilingual tribes.

Afghanistan's strategic location

Afghanistan's location along important trade routes has made it a sought-after prize for empire builders. The Khyber Pass, located between Afghanistan and Pakistan, has long been one of the most important trade routes and strategic military locations in the world. The ancient Silk Road, a 4000-mile-long network of trade routes, passes through Afghanistan and has been a cultural crossroads for Indian, Persian, and Chinese civilisations.

The country's central location means that instability in Afghanistan can have a destabilising effect on the entire region, providing fertile ground for terrorist groups and posing a threat to allies and partners. Afghanistan's location also makes it a "kind of policy way station towards a political agenda," according to Hanifi. This means that when large empires go to war in Afghanistan, they inevitably come up against other countries' attempts to exert their influence in the region.

Afghanistan's location, combined with its challenging terrain and multiple ethnic groups and tribes, makes it a uniquely complex and challenging place to wage war. The geographic factors of the terrain inform cultural values, and outside forces often struggle to understand the unique relationships between the country's various tribes and ethnic groups.

The country's rough terrain

Afghanistan's rough terrain has been a significant challenge for military operations. The country is landlocked and mountainous, with the towering mountain ranges of the Hindu Kush and Pamirs dividing the northern provinces from the rest of the country. The Hindu Kush mountain range reaches a height of 7,492 metres at Noshaq, Afghanistan's highest peak. The country's geography consists of irrigated land, small but fertile river valleys, deep gorges, deserts, high plateaus, and snow-covered mountains. The altitude, climate, and soil conditions vary greatly across the country. The central highlands, which have historically been important to the country's defence, have deep, narrow valleys and high mountains. The southern plateau is made up of high plateaus and sandy deserts, while the northern plains cover extremely fertile foothills and plains.

The rough terrain impacts the ease of travel throughout the country, essentially forming four distinct regions that have economic and cultural connections to their bordering countries. The varied altitudes create a variety of climates, allowing for a mix of crops to thrive. The difficulty of fighting in Afghanistan is further exacerbated by the country's limited forest cover, which gives tremendous advantages to armed forces with air dominance.

Multiple ethnic groups and tribes

Afghanistan is a multiethnic and mostly tribal society. The population of the country consists of numerous ethnolinguistic groups, including the Pashtun, Tajik, Hazara, and Uzbek, as well as the minorities of Aimaq, Turkmen, Baloch, Pashai, Nuristani, Gujjar, Brahui, Qizilbash, Pamiri, Kyrgyz, Sadat, Mongol and others. The Pashtuns make up the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan, followed by the Tajiks, Hazaras, and Uzbeks.

The Pashtuns can further be divided into major sub-tribes, such as the Ghilzali and Durrani, and several smaller ones, including the Jaji, Safi, Wardak, Shinwari, Tani, Mohmand, Jardan, Khungiani, and Mangal. The Tajiks are believed to have Iranian origins, and are also referred to as Farsi. The Hazaras occupy the rugged central highlands regions in Afghanistan and are said to be descendants of Genghis Khan, the founder of the Mongol Empire. The Uzbeks form the largest Turkic group in Afghanistan, whose native territory is in the northern regions of the country.

The country's population reflects its location with the presence of several national minorities. The main ethnic groups are dispersed throughout the country as follows: Pashtuns, the majority group, are concentrated mainly in the south and southeast but also live all over the state; Tajiks inhabit mainly the north and northeast, and the Kabul region; Hazaras live in the centre (Hazarajat) and in Kabul; Uzbeks in the north; Aimaq in the west; Turkmens in the north; Balochis in the west and southwest; and Nuristanis in the east.

The Taliban's resurgence

• The Taliban's resilience and adaptability: The Taliban is a resilient and adaptable group that has been able to withstand repeated troop surges and America's most fearsome weapons. They have also been ruthless in their methods and have shown a willingness to inflict heavy civilian casualties.
• The Taliban's safe havens in Pakistan: The Taliban has been able to operate from safe havens in Pakistan, which has provided them with a base to regroup, rearm, and launch attacks into Afghanistan. Pakistan has been accused of covertly nurturing the Taliban insurgency and providing them with support.
• The withdrawal of U.S. and NATO troops: The withdrawal of U.S. and NATO troops from Afghanistan created a security vacuum that the Taliban was quick to exploit. The reduction in troop numbers left the Afghan security forces ill-equipped to counter the Taliban's offensive.
• The failure of nation-building efforts: Despite significant investments in nation-building, Afghanistan continued to face challenges such as corruption, weak governance, and a lack of infrastructure. These issues hindered the development of a strong central government and allowed the Taliban to gain support by providing basic services and filling governance gaps.
• The Taliban's effective propaganda and information warfare: The Taliban has been effective in spreading propaganda and disinformation, capitalizing on anti-American and anti-Western sentiments among the Afghan population. They have also been able to exploit the perception of corruption and human rights abuses by U.S. and allied forces.
• The lack of a clear and unified strategy: There has been a lack of a clear and unified strategy among U.S. and allied forces, as well as the Afghan government, to effectively counter the Taliban. This has led to a fragmented and inconsistent approach that has played into the Taliban's hands.
• The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic: The COVID-19 pandemic created additional challenges for U.S. and Afghan forces, diverting resources and attention away from countering the Taliban. The pandemic also impacted the Afghan economy and further weakened the government's ability to provide basic services to its citizens.

The presence of al-Qaeda

Al-Qaeda was founded by bin Laden in 1988 and was composed of mujahideen fighters who had fought the Soviets. The group was funded by bin Laden, who was the son of a wealthy Saudi businessman.

Al-Qaeda was based in Afghanistan from 1989 until 1996, when it moved to Sudan. It returned to Afghanistan in 1996, where it was given safe haven by the Taliban government.

Al-Qaeda was responsible for the 1998 bombings of U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, and the 2000 bombing of the USS Cole in Yemen.

The 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon were carried out by 19 al-Qaeda operatives.

The U.S. invaded Afghanistan in October 2001, seeking to root out al-Qaeda and deny it a safe haven. Bin Laden escaped to Pakistan, but was killed by U.S. forces in 2011.

Al-Qaeda's leader, Ayman al-Zawahiri, was killed in a U.S. drone strike in Kabul in 2022.

Al-Qaeda has continued to operate in Afghanistan, and is believed to maintain ties with the Taliban.

In 2021, the U.S. withdrew its remaining troops from Afghanistan, bringing an end to the 20-year war.

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