Brunei's Enclaves: A Unique Geographical Puzzle

Brunei is divided into two non-contiguous parts, separated by the Malaysian state of Sarawak and Brunei Bay. The Temburong district, which is home to around 3% of Brunei's population, is an exclave, cut off from the rest of the country by land and sea. This unusual situation is the result of a series of territorial losses to colonial powers in the 19th century, which reduced the once-mighty Bruneian Empire to a rump state.

Brunei's borders with Malaysia

The Brunei–Malaysia border can be divided into three sectors: the western, western Brunei Bay, and eastern sectors. The western border stretches seaward from the terminus of the land boundary at a specified coordinate into the sea, following a set of five points to mark the "boundary in the neighbourhood of Tanjong Baram". The western Brunei Bay sector consists of a boundary line in Brunei Bay between the mouth of the Pandaruan River and one of the mouths of the Brunei River, enclosing a stretch of Malaysian waters adjacent to the mouth of the Limbang River. The eastern sector border stretches from the terminus of the eastern land border of Brunei's Temburong District at the mouth of the Bangau River, along straight lines joining a set of turning points until the Brunei-Sabah-Sarawak tripoint in the middle of the bay.

The land border between Malaysia and Brunei's Temburong District (which is separated from the rest of Brunei) starts at the estuary of the Pandaruan River and runs the entire length of the river to its source. It then follows the watershed between the Temburong River on one side and the Limbang and Trusan rivers on the other until it reaches Brunei Bay. The northern terminus of this boundary is located at the mouth of the Sungai Bangau, based on the coordinates established by the Sarawak (Definition of Boundaries) Order in Council 1958.

The delimitation and demarcation of the Brunei–Malaysia border have been addressed through various agreements between the two countries. Of the total land border length, 207.3 km was determined through five agreements between Brunei and Sarawak from the British colonial era, which were affirmed in the "Exchange of Letters" on 16 March 2009. In this exchange, the countries also agreed to use the watershed principle to determine the remaining undelimited portions of the border. The process of demarcating the boundary commenced after the exchange, with priority given to the areas covered by the five historical agreements. As of August 2024, 175.96 km, or 33.3% of the total land boundary length, has been demarcated and surveyed.

The complex border between Brunei and Malaysia is a result of historical changes and agreements, with ongoing efforts to fully demarcate and resolve any remaining disputes.

The country's oil and gas reserves

Brunei's economy is heavily reliant on its oil and gas reserves, which have been the basis of its development and wealth since the late 20th century. Petroleum was discovered in 1929, with oil being struck in 1929 and natural gas in 1927. Oil and gas production has steadily increased since then, and the country is now the third-largest oil producer in Southeast Asia and the fourth-largest producer of liquefied natural gas in the world.

As of 2016, Brunei holds 1,100,000,000 barrels of proven oil reserves, ranking 39th in the world and accounting for about 0.1% of the world's total oil reserves. This is equivalent to 188 times its annual consumption, meaning that, without net exports, there would be about 188 years of oil left (at current consumption levels and excluding unproven reserves). The country produces 121,034.39 barrels of oil per day, of which 91% is exported.

Brunei also holds 9.2 trillion cubic feet of proven natural gas reserves as of 2017, ranking 35th in the world and accounting for about 0.133% of the world's total natural gas reserves. This is equivalent to 66 times its annual consumption, meaning that there are about 66 years of natural gas left (at current consumption levels and excluding unproven reserves). The country produces 439,671.75 million cubic feet of natural gas per year, of which 68% is exported.

The oil and gas industry is the backbone of Brunei's economy, with Brunei Shell Petroleum contributing 90% of the country's oil and gas revenues. Other major players in the industry include Petroleum Brunei, a state-owned national company, and TOTAL. In 2020, the country committed to reducing its emissions by 20% by 2030 and achieving net-zero emissions by 2050, which may impact its oil and gas production in the future.

Brunei's history as a British protectorate

Brunei, a small country on the island of Borneo, became a British protectorate in 1888. The British had been involved in the region since the 1840s, when British adventurer James Brooke helped the Sultan of Brunei quell a rebellion. In return, Brooke was granted the governorship of Sarawak, a province of Brunei. Over time, Brooke and his nephews annexed more land, and Brunei lost much of its territory to them.

In 1888, the Sultan of Brunei, Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin, appealed to the British to stop further encroachment by the Brookes. The "Treaty of Protection" was signed with Sir Hugh Low, and Britain effectively took control of Brunei's foreign affairs. However, this did not prevent further loss of territory to the Brookes, and the treaty's shortcomings became clear. Despite this, Britain continued to prioritise its geopolitical interests in the region.

In 1906, a Supplementary Treaty created a British Resident, whose counsel was obligatory for the Sultan in all domains except Islamic ones. The Resident became the most powerful person in the Sultanate, with substantial administrative authority. The Resident appointed four district officers who answered directly to him, and he also had the power to appoint traditional authorities. The Sultan's standing became more symbolic, and actual authority shifted significantly.

In 1941, during World War II, Brunei was occupied by the Japanese. The British returned after the war, and negotiations for Brunei's independence began. In 1959, self-government was achieved, and a written constitution was adopted. Brunei became fully independent in 1984, ending Britain's protectorate.

The role of the Sultan

Brunei is a constitutional absolute monarchy ruled by the Sultan, who is also the head of state and government. The current Sultan, Hassanal Bolkiah, is one of the world's longest-reigning and few remaining absolute monarchs. He has ruled since 1967 and appointed himself prime minister upon Brunei's independence in 1984. The Sultan also serves as the state's finance minister and defence minister.

The Sultan holds full executive authority and has emergency powers, which are renewed every two years, meaning that Brunei has technically been under martial law since the 1962 Brunei Revolt. The Sultan's role as defender of the Islamic faith in the country is reinforced by the Malay Muslim Monarchy ideology, introduced in 1991, which presents the monarch as the defender of the faith.

The Sultan is responsible for appointing all members of the unicameral legislature, the Legislative Council, which is simply consultative. The Sultan's role also includes allocating land lots and housing to deserving residents under various government schemes.

The Sultan's role in Brunei's history has been significant, with the Sultanate controlling most of Borneo and its neighbouring islands in the 15th century. Brunei's independence in 1984 ended the British protectorate over the country, which had been in place since 1888.

Brunei's adoption of Islamic Sharia law

The country gained independence from British rule in 1984 and has been led by Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah since 1967. The Sultan has been a key figure in the adoption of Sharia law, utilising the country's oil wealth to promote Islamic education, build mosques, and enable religious pilgrimages. In 1996, he stated that it was divinely mandated to create an Islamic Criminal Law Act and assigned a working group of Sharia experts to investigate its implementation.

On April 30, 2014, the Sultan announced that the first phase of the Syariah Penal Code Order, 2013, would come into effect on May 1. This initial phase included provisions punishable by fines or imprisonment, with stoning, whipping, and amputation to be included in subsequent phases. The death penalty, including by stoning, was introduced in the final phase for offences such as adultery, sodomy, and insulting the Prophet Muhammad or the Quran. These harsh punishments attracted international criticism and concerns from human rights groups, with the United Nations expressing "deep concern."

The day-to-day management of religious affairs in Brunei falls under the Ministry of Religious Affairs, established in 1986. A State Mufti, appointed by the Prime Minister's Office, issues religious decrees, including defending religious bans such as the prohibition of alcohol. While the country has a written constitution that provides for internal self-government, the Sultan holds significant power as the head of state and religion, with authority over external affairs and defence.

Brunei's adoption of Sharia law reflects its commitment to the Malay Islamic Monarchy (MIB) principle, which combines Malay culture, the Islamic religion, and the political framework under the monarchy. The country's legal system is based on English common law, with Islamic law (Sharia) taking precedence in certain cases. The influence of Islam is evident in various aspects of Bruneian culture, from its architecture to its customs and traditions, solidifying its position as a key aspect of the country's identity.

Frequently asked questions