How Portugal's Angolan Grip Persisted

Portugal's presence in Angola lasted from 1482, when Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão arrived at the mouth of the Congo River, until the territory's decolonization in 1975. Portugal's interest in Angola was driven by the slave trade, and the country became a major source of slaves for the Portuguese Empire. Despite facing fierce resistance from local kingdoms, Portugal gradually established control over the region through a combination of treaties and military conflicts. By the beginning of the 20th century, Portugal had secured full administrative control over Angola. However, the process of decolonization in the mid-20th century was prolonged and tumultuous, with Angola gaining independence in 1975 following a military coup in Portugal and the outbreak of civil war.

Portugal profited from the slave trade in Angola

During the 18th and 19th centuries, Angola was the principal source of slaves for the Atlantic slave trade. The slave trade with the Portuguese colony of Brazil was important in Portuguese Angola; Brazilian ships were the most numerous in the ports of Luanda and Benguela. In the 1750s, the Portuguese sold 5,000 to 10,000 slaves annually, devastating the Mbundu economy and population. From 1580 to the 1820s, well over a million people from present-day Angola were exported as slaves to the New World, mainly to Brazil, but also to North America.

In addition to profiting from the slave trade, Portugal also benefited from access to Angolan resources such as diamonds, iron ore, and petroleum.

Portugal wanted to maintain its global power and influence

Portugal's refusal to give up Angola was partly due to its desire to maintain its global power and influence. Angola was a significant colony within the Portuguese Empire, and its loss would have represented a substantial blow to Portugal's status as a colonial power. Angola's vast natural resources, including diamonds, petroleum, and agricultural products, also contributed to Portugal's reluctance to relinquish control.

The history of Portuguese presence in Angola dates back to the arrival of Portuguese explorers in the late 15th century. Over time, Portugal established trading relations with local kingdoms and consolidated its colonial rule. Angola became a crucial source of slaves for the Portuguese, who were shipped to Portuguese colonies in the Atlantic and later to the Americas. The slave trade was immensely profitable for the Portuguese and played a significant role in their global economic endeavours.

In the 20th century, Angola continued to be an important part of the Portuguese Empire. The discovery of natural resources such as diamonds and petroleum further increased Angola's strategic value. Additionally, Angola's agricultural sector produced valuable exports such as coffee, cotton, and sugar. The Portuguese recognised the economic potential of Angola and sought to maintain access to its resources.

Moreover, Portugal's refusal to grant independence to its African colonies, including Angola, was influenced by geopolitical considerations. During the Cold War, Portugal, a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), sought to maintain a presence in Africa to counter the influence of the Soviet Union and communist movements on the continent. Angola's strategic location along the west coast of Africa was particularly significant in this context.

The loss of Angola would have diminished Portugal's global influence and challenged its status as a colonial power. By retaining control over Angola, Portugal aimed to preserve its access to natural resources, maintain its economic interests, and exert geopolitical influence during a tumultuous period in global politics.

Portugal faced resistance from local kingdoms

The Portuguese also faced resistance from the Kingdom of Ndongo, the Kingdom of Lunda, and the Mbunda Kingdom. The Portuguese had to contend with these local kingdoms as they gradually colonized the interior highlands in the 18th century. Full control of the entire territory was not achieved until the beginning of the 20th century.

Portugal lacked the support of other European powers

Portugal's efforts to consolidate its power in Angola were further complicated by shifting tribal allegiances and the relatively small number of Afro-Portuguese in the region. The Angolan Wars, which lasted for a century, saw the Portuguese struggle against powerful kingdoms like Kongo, Ndongo, and Matamba. Despite their superior weaponry, the Portuguese were often outnumbered and faced skilled local fighters, particularly skilled bowmen.

The slave trade was a central aspect of Portugal's presence in Angola, and it faced competition from other European powers like the Dutch, English, and French. By the mid-1700s, Portugal had lost control of the slave trade in the region north of Luanda, and it was forced to concentrate its efforts on the area south of the city and further inland.

The Portuguese also faced challenges in attracting European settlers to Angola. The climate and difficult conditions deterred many potential migrants, who often preferred the more appealing climate of Brazil. As a result, Angola had a relatively small white population for much of its colonial history.

In the 20th century, Portugal's refusal to accept the inevitability of independent African states and its willingness to spend a significant portion of its budget on military efforts in Africa further isolated it from other Western powers. Salazar's colonial policy was supported by the USA, which wanted to protect its military base in the Portuguese Azores, and by investors who sought to maintain a white-dominated South Africa. However, Portugal ultimately lacked broad support from other European powers, which contributed to its eventual withdrawal from Angola.

Portugal was defeated in the Carnation Revolution

Portugal's authoritarian Estado Novo government was overthrown on 25 April 1974 in Lisbon, in what became known as the Carnation Revolution. The revolution was a military coup by military officers who opposed the regime, but it was also supported by a popular civil resistance campaign. The revolution was named after the fact that almost no shots were fired, and from restaurant worker Celeste Caeiro, who offered carnations to soldiers when the population took to the streets to celebrate the end of the dictatorship.

The Carnation Revolution was a consequence of the Portuguese Colonial War, which saw independence movements in the African colonies of Portuguese Mozambique, Portuguese Congo, Portuguese Angola, and Portuguese Guinea. The war was unpopular in Portugal, and the country became increasingly isolated and polarised. The Portuguese military was overstretched, and there was no political solution in sight. The war had a profound impact on the country, and the revolutionary Armed Forces Movement (MFA) began as an attempt to liberate Portugal from the Estado Novo regime.

The coup was organised by junior army officers from the clandestine MFA, who were tired of the failing wars. On 25 April 1974, thousands of Portuguese took to the streets, mingling with, and supporting, the military insurgents. The Caetano government relented, and power was ceded to General Spínola. The revolution ended in the peaceful overthrow of Caetano and the Estado Novo, which had been installed in 1933 and was the longest-surviving regime in Western Europe.

The Carnation Revolution introduced a new Constitution, civil liberties, and the end of Portuguese colonialism. It also led to the independence of Angola in 1975, and prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens from Portugal's African territories.

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