Damon Mcknight
Austria and Germany have a shared history, with German being the official language and Germans being the majority ethnic group of both countries. In the 1920s, many Austrians did not think their country could survive economically without the lands previously held by Austria-Hungary, and some wanted to unite with Germany. This desire for unification was also shared by Adolf Hitler and the Nazis, who considered the postwar international borders unfair and illegitimate. Hitler, who was Austrian-born, demanded the right to Anschluss (union) between Austria and Germany after he rose to power in 1933, and the Nazis cultivated pro-unification tendencies in Austria. However, the Allies were committed to upholding the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and those of St. Germain, which specifically prohibited the union of Austria and Germany. This raises the question: why didn't Hitler control Austria instead of Germany?
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Hitler's desire for unification | To incorporate as many ethnic Germans outside Germany into a "Greater Germany" |
| Hitler's actions | Wrote in Mein Kampf (1925) about his intention to unite Austria and Germany |
| Attempted to overthrow the Austrian government in 1934 | |
| Demanded that Austrian chancellor appoint members of Austria's Nazi Party to his cabinet | |
| Invaded Austria in 1938 | |
| Nazi Germany's actions in Austria | Started mass arrests |
| Opened a concentration camp at Mauthausen-Gusen | |
| Implemented anti-Romanyism sentiment |
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What You'll Learn
Austria's Catholic religious identity
Austria has historically been a strongly Catholic country, with the religion shaping much of the country's culture and laws. The presence of Christianity and Catholicism in Austria predates the establishment of the nation-state. Vienna was once the seat of the Holy Roman Empire, and the country was the centre of the Habsburg monarchy (1273–1918), which championed Roman Catholicism.
The Protestant Reformation that began in 1517 spread to Austria from northern Germany, and by the Council of Trent in 1545, almost half of the Austrian population had converted to Lutheranism. A minority also endorsed Calvinism, with Eastern Austria being more affected by this phenomenon than the west. However, the Habsburgs, who viewed themselves as the vanguard of Catholicism, imposed a strict regime to restore the influence of the Catholic Church among Austrians, harshly repressing Austrian Protestantism. This campaign was successful, and Catholicism was restored as the dominant religion.
Despite adhering to a separation of church and state, strong Catholic sentiment still influences Austrian society and law-making. For example, gay marriage in Austria was only approved in 2019 due to religious influence. Additionally, many Austrians continue to practice Catholic traditions that mark seminal life events, such as baptism, confirmation, marriage, and funerals. Many will baptise their babies even if they do not regularly attend church services.
Catholicism is still the biggest religion in Austria, with 55.2% of the population identifying as Roman Catholic as of 2021, down from 64.1% in 2011 and 73.8% in 2001. This decline in Catholicism is partly due to the increasing number of Catholics opting to officially leave the Church to stop paying the mandatory membership fee or "Kirchenbeitrag", calculated by income at about 1%. In 2000 alone, 43,632 Catholics left the church, and in 2019, 56.9% of the population identified as Catholic.
The events of World War II had a significant impact on Austria's Catholic community. During the German annexation of Austria, the Catholic Church faced significant oppression, persecution, and deportation to concentration camps. Many were tortured, executed, or driven to commit suicide. Since the end of World War II, the Catholic religion and the church's influence have been on a decline.
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Austria's non-NATO status
Austria's non-alignment with NATO is a result of historical and geopolitical factors, as well as domestic political considerations. Here is an overview of the key factors contributing to Austria's non-NATO status:
- Historical Context: After World War II, Austria was occupied by the four victorious Allied powers, including the Soviet Union, under the Allied Control Council. During negotiations to end the occupation, the Soviet Union insisted that a reunified Austria adopt a position of neutrality modelled on Switzerland. This was done to prevent West Germany from accepting similar Soviet proposals for neutrality as a condition for its reunification. As a result, Austria's constitution includes a Declaration of Neutrality, which prohibits the country from joining a military alliance, hosting foreign military bases, or participating in wars.
- Domestic Politics: Austrian Chancellor Karl Nehammer has reaffirmed the country's commitment to neutrality, stating that Austria has no plans to join NATO. This stance is not unique in modern Austrian politics; Chancellor Nehammer's predecessor, Sebastian Kurz, also maintained a neutral position. Additionally, public opinion in Austria largely opposes joining NATO, with only 21% in favour, according to an April 2023 survey by the Austrian Society for European Politics.
- European Integration: Despite its non-alignment with NATO, Austria has formal relations with the organization through its participation in the Partnership for Peace programme since 1995. Austria also engages with NATO through the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council. The Austrian military contributes to United Nations peacekeeping operations and has deployments in several countries, demonstrating its commitment to international cooperation and security.
- Regional Dynamics: Austria's stance on NATO must be understood within the context of its regional relationships. Austria's complex history with Germany, including its annexation by Nazi Germany in 1938, has influenced its approach to foreign policy and alliances. Additionally, Austria has sought to maintain its neutrality to avoid tensions between larger powers, such as Italy and Germany, as seen during the rise of fascism in the 1930s.
- Geopolitical Considerations: Austria's non-alignment with NATO can be viewed as part of a broader European context. Along with Cyprus, Ireland, and Malta, Austria is one of four European Union members that are not part of NATO. This position allows Austria to maintain its independence in foreign policy decision-making, especially regarding issues that may divide NATO members, such as relations with Russia.
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Austria's economic dependence on Germany
Austria and Germany have historically had a close relationship due to their shared history, with German being the official language in both countries and Germans being the majority ethnic group. In the past, Austria's economy was heavily dependent on Germany, its main trading partner. This economic reliance on Germany has made the Austrian economy vulnerable to fluctuations in the German economy.
Following World War I, Austria briefly renamed itself the Republic of German-Austria, seeking unification with Germany. However, this union was forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, which aimed to prevent the formation of a dominant German state. Despite the prohibition, discussions about Austria's unification with Germany persisted. During this period, both countries experienced severe economic hardships, including hyperinflation, mass unemployment, and frequent riots.
In the 1920s, many Austrians believed that their country could not survive economically without the territories previously held by Austria-Hungary. Some advocated for the restoration of the empire, while others desired unification with Germany. These sentiments were not new, as debates about Austria's role in a German nation-state dated back to the 19th century.
Adolf Hitler, an Austrian-born German chancellor, played a significant role in shaping Austro-German relations. In his writings and speeches, Hitler expressed his desire for an Austro-German union. After seizing power in Germany in 1933, he demanded the right to Anschluss (union) between the two countries. On February 12, 1938, he intimidated Austrian chancellor Schuschnigg into signing the Berchtesgaden Agreement, which undermined Austrian sovereignty and paved the way for Nazi Germany's annexation of Austria in 1938.
In recent years, Austria's economic dependence on Germany has decreased due to several factors. Austria's membership in the European Union (EU) has fostered closer economic ties with other EU member states and attracted foreign investment. Additionally, privatisation has brought Austria's economic policies more in line with other European economies. Today, Austria's economy is characterised as a highly developed social market economy, with a strong focus on social welfare and labour movements. While Germany remains an important trading partner, Austria has diversified its trade relations, conducting 68% of its foreign trade with other EU member states.
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Austria's independent sovereignty
Austria's sovereignty has been a contentious issue for centuries. The country's history is characterised by a struggle to maintain its independence in the face of competing geopolitical forces.
In the mid-19th century, Austria was a major power in central Europe, but it was not willing to relinquish its German-speaking territories to the emerging German Empire. As a result, Austria was excluded from the German Confederation after the Austro-Prussian War in 1866. The Compromise of 1867, or the Ausgleich, established a dual sovereignty between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary under Franz Joseph I.
After World War I, the Republic of German-Austria was proclaimed in 1918, and the First Austrian Republic was established in 1919. However, the First Republic gradually disintegrated due to political infighting and violence, and in 1933, Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss established an authoritarian regime, the Austrofascist state. Despite aligning with Fascist Italy and authoritarian Hungary, Dollfuss's government opposed unification with Germany.
In 1934, Hitler ordered a coup in Austria, which failed, and he temporarily denied involvement. However, in 1938, Austrian chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg met with Hitler to discuss rising tensions between the two countries. Hitler presented a set of demands, including the appointment of Nazis to positions of power in the Austrian government, which undermined Austrian sovereignty. On March 12, 1938, Austrian Nazis took control of the government, and German troops occupied the country. The annexation, or Anschluss, of Austria was officially declared, and it became a sub-national division of Nazi Germany.
During World War II, the Allies agreed in the 1943 Declaration of Moscow to treat Austria as the first victim of Nazi aggression and a liberated and independent country after the war. Following the war, Austria was jointly occupied by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union until 1955, when the Austrian State Treaty, or Austrian Independence Treaty, was signed in Vienna, re-establishing Austria as a sovereign, independent, and democratic state. The treaty prohibited any future Anschluss and guaranteed the rights of minority groups. Austria also pledged perpetual neutrality in foreign relations and became a member of the United Nations and the Council of Europe.
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Austria's anti-unification government
Dollfuss's government faced significant challenges, including infighting and political violence within Austria, as well as the rise of the Nazis in Germany in 1933, which further destabilised the country. Austrian Nazis, supported and funded by Germany, waged a propaganda and terror campaign against the Dollfuss regime, seeking to undermine it and foster pro-unification sentiments. In response, Dollfuss banned the Austrian Nazi Party and its affiliates in 1933, making the Nazi movement illegal in Austria.
Despite these efforts, the Austrian Nazis attempted a coup in 1934, during which Dollfuss was assassinated. The coup ultimately failed due to the loyalty of the Austrian military and police forces, as well as support from Mussolini's Italy. However, the defeat of the coup prompted many leading Austrian Nazis to flee to Germany, where they continued their efforts to unify the two countries.
Dollfuss's successor, Kurt Schuschnigg, faced increasing pressure from pro-unification activists and was eventually coerced by Hitler into accepting Nazi ministers into his government. Schuschnigg attempted to assert Austrian independence but ultimately gave in to Hitler's demands, signing the Berchtesgaden Agreement, which undermined Austrian sovereignty. On March 11, 1938, Schuschnigg resigned, and Arthur Seyss-Inquart, an Austrian Nazi politician, became chancellor. The German Army crossed the border, and the annexation, or Anschluss, was declared, marking the unification of Austria and Germany.
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Frequently asked questions
Hitler wanted to annex Austria to achieve his goal of redrawing the map of post-World War I Europe and creating an all-German Reich. He considered the postwar international borders unfair and illegitimate, and by uniting Austria and Germany, he could incorporate millions of ethnic Germans into a Greater Germany.
Hitler attempted to gain control of Austria through a coup in 1934, which failed and resulted in the assassination of Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss. Following this, Hitler worked with Austrian Nazis in exile to cultivate pro-unification tendencies in Austria and undermine the Austrian government. In 1938, he met with Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg and intimidated him into agreeing to a set of demands that undermined Austrian sovereignty.
Hitler's plan faced opposition due to the potential danger posed to Austria's Catholic religious identity by a Protestant-majority Germany. Additionally, some Austrians wanted to preserve their distinct historical heritage, which included Celtic, Slavic, Avar, Rhaethian, and Roman influences.
Hitler successfully annexed Austria into Nazi Germany in 1938, and it remained a part of Germany until the end of World War II. The annexation was achieved through a combination of intimidation, propaganda, and the appointment of Nazi sympathizers to positions of power in the Austrian government.
The Allies were committed to upholding the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of St. Germain, which specifically prohibited the union of Austria and Germany. However, their reaction was only verbal and moderate, with no military confrontation taking place. The strongest verbal protests came from Fascist Italy, France, and Britain, but they also did not escalate the situation beyond words.
