Leslie Massey
The complex relationship between Russia and Austria-Hungary was influenced by several factors, including shifting alliances, imperial ambitions, and the desire to maintain the status quo. Initially, Russia and Austria shared a close relationship during and after the Napoleonic Wars, with Russia supporting Austria during the Hungarian Revolution in 1848. However, tensions arose during the Crimean War when Austria maintained hostile neutrality towards Russia, allying with the Anglo-French coalition. This strained their relationship, but they found common ground again in their mutual distrust of Serbia and desire to maintain influence in the Balkans, particularly with the weakening of the Ottoman Empire. Germany played a pivotal role in shaping the dynamics between Russia and Austria-Hungary, with Chancellor Otto von Bismarck mediating power balances through various treaties and alliances, including the League of Three Emperors in 1873. The formation of the unified German Empire in 1871 disturbed the old 'balance of power', leading to realignments and rivalries. Ultimately, conflicting ambitions in southeastern Europe and the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serb nationalists pushed Russia and Austria-Hungary towards opposing sides in the lead-up to World War I.
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What You'll Learn
Russia's support for Serbia
Historical Context
The relationship between Russia and Serbia has a long history, with Russia often seeing Serbia as a key ally in the Balkan region. This relationship was particularly significant in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a period marked by shifting alliances and rising tensions among the great powers of Europe.
Pan-Slavism and Yugoslavism
A key ideological factor influencing Russia's support for Serbia was the rise of Pan-Slavism. Pan-Slavism emphasized the unity and solidarity of all Slavic peoples, and Russia, as the largest Slavic nation, saw itself as the natural leader and protector of other Slavic groups. Serbia, with its significant Slavic population, positioned itself as a champion of this Pan-Slavic ideal. In contrast, Serbia also advocated for the creation of a South Slavic state, known as Yugoslavism, which was seen as a potential threat to the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Opposition to Austria-Hungary
Geopolitical Interests
Russian-Serbian Relations
The relationship between Russia and Serbia was not always smooth, and at times, they had conflicting interests. For example, Russia was disappointed by Serbia's response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, as Serbia refused to impose sanctions on Russia but also did not fully support the violation of Ukraine's territorial integrity. However, Russia and Serbia have historically found common cause against a perceived threat from Austria-Hungary, which ultimately drew them into a closer alliance.
World War I
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by Serbian nationalists in 1914 triggered a major crisis. Austria-Hungary, with the support of Germany, delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, which Russia interpreted as part of an Austro-German plot to diminish Russian influence in the Balkans. Russia's decision to support Serbia and mobilize its military forces ultimately led to the outbreak of World War I, demonstrating the strong and complex nature of the relationship between the two countries.
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Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia
The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary in 1908 was a significant event that upset the fragile balance of power in Europe and contributed to the outbreak of World War I. Here is a detailed overview of the annexation and its implications:
- Background: In the mid-1870s, violent rebellions against Ottoman rule in the Balkans led to a violent response from the Ottoman Empire. Russia, wanting to intervene, obtained an agreement with Austria-Hungary.
- Budapest Conventions of 1877: Russia and Austria-Hungary agreed that Russia would annex Bessarabia, while Austria-Hungary would remain neutral during the impending war with the Ottoman Empire. As compensation, Russia agreed to Austria-Hungary's control over Bosnia-Herzegovina.
- Treaty of Berlin, 1878: After Russia's victory in the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878), the Treaty of Berlin was signed, allowing Austria-Hungary to occupy the Bosnia Vilayet, which was formally still under Ottoman sovereignty.
- Administration and Improvement: From 1878 until 1908, Austria-Hungary administered Bosnia and Herzegovina, investing significantly to improve the region's economic and strategic value and linking it closely with the Dual Monarchy.
- Annexation Declaration: On October 6, 1908, Austria-Hungary announced its annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, claiming full sovereignty over the provinces. This was timed to coincide with Bulgaria's declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire, upsetting the balance of power in the Balkans.
- Opposition and Protests: The annexation dismayed and enraged Serbia, Russia, and other Great Powers. Serbia, which had close geographical and ethnic ties to Bosnia and Herzegovina, vehemently opposed the annexation and demanded that Austria cede a portion of the annexed territory.
- Diplomatic Fallout: The annexation permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbors, especially Serbia, Italy, and Russia. It led to bitter enmity and increased tensions in the region.
- Russian Response: Initially, Russia was forced to submit to the annexation, but its foreign office viewed Austria-Hungary's actions as aggressive and threatening. Russia encouraged pro-Russian, anti-Austrian sentiment in Serbia and other Balkan provinces, stoking Austrian fears of Slavic expansionism.
- Treaty Amendments: In April 1909, the Treaty of Berlin was amended to reflect the annexation, bringing the immediate crisis to an end. However, the resolution further strained relations, particularly between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, and contributed to the outbreak of World War I.
Implications and Impact:
The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina had far-reaching implications that extended beyond the immediate diplomatic fallout:
- Increased Tensions: The annexation heightened tensions in the Balkans, as it fueled Slavic nationalism and clashed with Serbia's ambitions to establish a "Great Serbia," which included Bosnia and Herzegovina.
- Railways and Rivalries: Serbia protested Austria-Hungary's plan to build a railway from Vienna to Salonica through the Sanjak of Novipazar, viewing it as a symbol of German-Austro-Hungarian domination over the Balkans.
- Alliances and Rivalries: The annexation contributed to shifting alliances and rivalries among European powers. Russia's alliance with Germany was replaced by the "Reinsurance Treaty" with Germany in 1887, and Germany's support for Austria-Hungary during the annexation crisis further strained Russo-German relations.
- Prelude to World War I: The annexation was a pivotal event leading up to World War I. The enmity between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, coupled with their respective alliances, set the stage for the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914, which triggered a series of events leading to the outbreak of the war.
In summary, Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908 was a pivotal event that disrupted the balance of power in Europe, heightened tensions in the Balkans, and contributed to the complex web of alliances and rivalries that ultimately led to the outbreak of World War I.
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The Eastern Question
However, the Eastern Question remained a source of tension between Austria-Hungary and Russia, as they competed for an increased role in the Balkans at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. Austrian officials worried that Russia was adopting a pan-Slavist policy designed to unite all Slavonic-speaking peoples under the Tsar's leadership, leading them to pursue an anti-Slavic policy domestically and abroad. The occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878 by Austria-Hungary, and the subsequent annexation of the Bosnia Vilayet in 1908, dismayed Russia and was viewed as a violation of the Treaty of Berlin.
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The Crimean War
In the lead-up to the Crimean War, Russia had obtained recognition from the Ottoman Empire as the special guardian of Orthodox Christians in Moldavia and Wallachia. Russia then used the Sultan's failure to protect Christian sites in the Holy Land as a pretext for occupying Danubian provinces. Nicholas I of Russia expected that Austria would side with him or remain neutral, given Russia's previous assistance in suppressing the Hungarian Revolution of 1848-1849. However, Austria felt threatened by the Russian troops in the Balkans and supported the United Kingdom and France in demanding the withdrawal of Russian forces from the principalities. Russia's rejection of this ultimatum provided Britain and France with a justification to enter the war.
During the war, Russia's troops withdrew from the Danubian Principalities, which were then occupied by Austria. Despite this concession, Britain and France continued hostilities, determined to end the Russian threat to the Ottoman Empire. The war concluded with Russia's defeat, leading to a period of crisis for Imperial Russia. The United Kingdom, as a "protector" of the Ottoman Empire, received Cyprus as a colonial possession, while Austria-Hungary occupied and annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908.
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The Bolshevik Revolution
The Lead-Up to the Bolshevik Revolution
In the years leading up to the Bolshevik Revolution, Russia was plagued by economic hardship, food shortages, and government corruption, which fostered widespread disillusionment with Czar Nicholas II and the Romanov family. The poor performance of the Russian army during World War I, particularly the heavy casualties suffered in the campaigns of 1915 and 1916, further exacerbated the situation. Additionally, the Russian Revolution of 1905, triggered by the embarrassing defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), had laid the groundwork for future revolutionary movements.
The Provisional Government and the Rise of the Bolsheviks
Following the February Revolution of 1917, the provisional government was formed, but it chose to continue fighting in World War I despite public opposition. The Bolsheviks, initially a marginal faction, gained popularity by promising peace, land redistribution, and an end to the wartime famine. They united various workers' militias into the Red Guards, preparing to seize power.
The Bolshevik Seizure of Power
On November 6 and 7, 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power, occupying strategic locations in Petrograd. This marked the beginning of the Bolshevik Revolution and the establishment of the world's first socialist state. The Bolsheviks quickly moved to fulfil their promises, signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in March 1918 to end Russia's participation in World War I. They also established the Cheka, a secret police force, to eliminate those considered "enemies of the people."
The Aftermath and Civil War
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Frequently asked questions
Russia supported the Austrians during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848/49.
Austria-Hungary's alignment with France, Britain, and the Ottomans during the Crimean War distanced it from Russia.
The "Eastern Question" referred to the weakening of the Ottoman Empire and its rebellious Christian subjects. Russia and Austria-Hungary had conflicting ambitions in the Balkans, which caused tension between the two empires.
Following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria by Serb nationalists, Austria delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, which Russia supported. This led to a bitter enmity between the two empires.
