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By the late 18th century, factional differences in Poland had led to civil war, and the countries of Prussia, Austria, and Russia took advantage of this instability to claim portions of Polish territory as their own. This was the First Partition of Poland, which occurred in 1772 and resulted in Poland losing almost one-third of its territory. The Second Partition of Poland took place in 1793, ceding further land in the west to Prussia and in the east to Russia. Finally, the Third Partition of Poland in 1795 divided the remainder of Polish lands among the three powers, effectively erasing Poland from the map.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of First Partition | 5 August 1772 |
| Date of Second Partition | 23 January 1773 |
| Date of Third Partition | 26 January 1797 |
| Date Poland was resurrected | 11 November 1918 |
| Territories acquired by Russia | All Polish territory east of the line formed by the Dvina and Dnieper rivers; Polish Livonia; lands in eastern Belarus embracing the counties of Vitebsk, Polotsk and Mstislavl; Courland; all Lithuanian territory east of the Neman River; the rest of the Volhynian Ukraine |
| Territories acquired by Prussia | The economically valuable province of Royal Prussia, excluding the cities of Gdańsk (Danzig) and Toruń; Ermland (Warmia); northern areas of Greater Poland along the Noteć River (the Netze District); parts of Kuyavia; the remainder of Mazovia, including Warsaw; a section of Lithuania west of the Neman River |
| Territories acquired by Austria | Little Poland (Małopolska) south of the Vistula River; western Podolia; Zator; Auschwitz (Oświęcim); part of Lesser Poland embracing parts of the counties of Kraków and Sandomir; the whole of Galicia, less the city of Kraków; the remaining section of Little Poland, from Kraków northeastward to the arc of the Northern Bug River |
| Reason for the First Partition | To calm Austro-Russian relations by shifting the direction of Russia's expansion from the Ottoman Empire to Poland, which had a weak government, had been devastated by civil war and was incapable of resisting territorial seizures |
| Reason for the Second Partition | The formation of the conservative Confederation of Targowica, which asked Russia to intervene to restore the former Polish constitution |
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What You'll Learn
Russia's victory in the Russo-Turkish War
The Russo-Turkish War, also known as the Russo-Ottoman War, refers to a series of twelve wars fought between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire from the 16th century to the 20th century. The first major war took place between 1768 and 1774, with Russia securing impressive victories over the Turks, capturing Azov, Crimea, and Bessarabia. The Russian Black Sea Fleet, under the command of Admiral Ushakov, played a crucial role in this victory by inflicting a series of defeats on the Turkish fleet and establishing Russian dominance in the Black Sea.
The Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774 had significant consequences for Poland. Russia's victories in this conflict led to a shift in the balance of power in Europe, causing alarm in Austria, which had interests in the region, particularly in Moldavia and Wallachia. To prevent further Russian expansion into Ottoman territories, Austria considered taking military action against Russia. However, Prussia's King Frederick II proposed a partition of Polish territories instead, taking advantage of Poland's weak and dysfunctional government. This proposal resulted in the First Partition of Poland in 1772, in which Russia, Prussia, and Austria divided and annexed Polish lands, reducing Poland's size and influence.
The Second Partition of Poland occurred in 1793, as a result of Russia's intervention in Polish internal affairs. The conservative Confederation of Targowica invited Russia to restore the former Polish constitution, leading to Russian and Prussian troops entering Poland. The Second Partition further diminished Poland, with Russia acquiring western Ukraine and Lithuania, while Prussia absorbed cities like Gdańsk and Toruń.
The Third Partition of Poland was finalized in 1797, with Russia, Prussia, and Austria dividing and absorbing the remaining Polish territories. Russia acquired Courland and Lithuanian territory, Prussia acquired Warsaw and parts of Lithuania, while Austria took the remaining sections of Little Poland. These partitions effectively eliminated the sovereign state of Poland, and the main result of this elimination persisted until after World War I, when the Polish republic was finally restored in 1918.
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Weak Polish government and civil war
By the late 18th century, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had been reduced from the status of a European power to that of a country under major influence of, and almost becoming the protectorate of, the Russian Empire. The Russian tsar effectively chose Polish–Lithuanian monarchs during free elections and decided the outcome of much of Poland's internal politics.
In 1767-68, an extraordinary Sejm session was held, during which equal rights were granted to non-Catholics and Catherine II was recognised as the protector of "Polish freedoms". On 24 February 1768, a treaty of friendship and perpetual guarantee was signed between Russia and Poland. The Tsarina committed to guaranteeing Polish territory and political institutions, bringing the entire Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth under Russian control. In reaction to this de facto tutelage, a new confederation formed in Bar (29 February 1768) to defend their homeland and Catholic faith. The Bar Confederation was supported by France and the Ottoman Empire. It declared war on Russia on 6 October 1768 following a massacre carried out by pro-Russian forces on its territory. The Polish insurrection turned into a civil and interstate war. This situation served Austrian and Prussian interests as it contained Russian expansion.
By 1768, factional differences in Poland had led to civil war. The countries surrounding Poland—Prussia, Austria, and Russia—took advantage of this instability and claimed portions of Polish territory as their own in 1772. Poland lost almost one-third of its territory in this First Partition, with lands in the west going to Prussia, lands in the southwest going to Austria, and lands in the east going to Russia.
In 1769, the Habsburg monarchy annexed a small territory of Spisz, and in 1770 it annexed Nowy Sącz and Nowy Targ. These territories had been contested between Poland and Hungary, which was part of the Monarchy. The Ottoman Empire, the Bar confederation, and its French and European volunteers were defeated by Russian forces and Polish governmental ones with the aid of Great Britain. As Russia moved into the Crimea and the Danubian Principalities, King Frederick II of Prussia and Maria Theresa worried that the defeat of the Ottoman Empire would upset the balance of power in Eastern Europe. Frederick II began to construct the partition to rebalance the power.
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Russia's expansion into Crimea
Russia, Prussia, and Austria partitioned Poland through three territorial divisions in 1772, 1793, and 1795, progressively reducing Poland's size until it ceased to exist as a state. The First Partition occurred as a result of Russia's involvement in the war against the Ottoman Turks, which alarmed Austria and threatened its interests in the region. Russia's expansion into Crimea, on the other hand, has a more recent history.
In 1783, Russia invaded Crimea as part of a westward expansion seeking control of the Mediterranean and the Middle East. This invasion was driven by Catherine the Great's ambition to establish a new Byzantium in Constantinople, with her grandson Constantine as its emperor. However, Russia's defeat in the Crimean War (1853-1856) temporarily halted its territorial aspirations in the region.
In the 20th century, Crimea became part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic within the Soviet Union. Following the Soviet Union's dissolution, Crimea remained a disputed territory between Ukraine and Russia, with a significant Russian military presence due to the leasing of a naval base in Sevastopol to Russia.
In late January 2014, Russian businessman Konstantin Malofeyev travelled to Crimea and met with Vladimir Konstantinov, Chairman of the Supreme Council. They discussed the possibility of taking more drastic measures to enforce Crimea's autonomy if Ukraine descended into chaos. Konstantinov had previously indicated his willingness to break away from Ukraine and join Russia if there were political upheavals.
In February 2014, unmarked Russian troops entered Crimea, and a referendum was held in March 2014, with the official results showing support for Crimea's integration with Russia. The Supreme Council of Crimea then declared the formal independence of the Republic of Crimea and requested admission into the Russian Federation. This was followed by the annexation of Crimea by Russia, which has been widely condemned by Ukraine and other nations as an illegal occupation.
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Prussia's desire to recover Royal Prussia
By the late 18th century, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had weakened significantly, and Russia had increased its influence over Polish affairs, causing concern among other European powers. King Frederick II of Prussia, known as Frederick the Great, played a pivotal role in initiating the partitioning of Poland to counter Russian expansion and maintain the balance of power in the region. Prussia had long desired to reclaim Royal Prussia, and the opportunity arose when Russia's victories against the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War (1768-1774) shifted the balance of power in Europe.
In 1772, the First Partition of Poland took place, with Prussia, Russia, and Austria dividing Polish territories among themselves. Prussia acquired most of Royal Prussia, including Warmia, Ermland, and parts of Greater Poland and Kuyavia. This acquisition allowed Frederick to adopt the title of "King of Prussia," reflecting the enhanced prestige and territorial gains for Prussia. The acquisition of Royal Prussia was strategically important for Prussia, as it provided a territorial link between East Prussia and the kingdom's western territories.
The Second Partition of Poland occurred in 1793, with Prussia absorbing the cities of Gdańsk and Toruń, further consolidating its control over former Polish territories. The Third Partition of Poland, finalized in 1797, resulted in Prussia acquiring the remainder of Mazovia, including Warsaw, and a section of Lithuania west of the Neman River. These successive partitions progressively reduced Poland's size and influence, ultimately leading to the elimination of the sovereign state of Poland until its restoration after World War I in 1918.
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Austria's interest in salt mines
The partitioning of Poland in 1772, 1793, and 1795 by Russia, Prussia, and Austria reduced Poland's size and influence in Europe. The First Partition occurred after Russia's victories against the Ottomans in the Russo-Turkish War, which threatened to upset the balance of power in Europe.
Austria was the least interested in the partition of Poland, but it still received a large share of the former Polish population and the second-largest land share, including the regions of Little Poland (Małopolska) south of the Vistula River, western Podolia, and the area that became known as Galicia.
Among the territories acquired by Austria were the rich salt mines of Bochnia and Wieliczka, which were considered ample compensation for the partition. The Wieliczka Salt Mine, located near Kraków in southern Poland, has been a source of sodium chloride (table salt) since the Neolithic era. The mine was excavated from the 13th century and operated continuously until 1996, making it one of the world's oldest operating salt mines.
The salt mines were a significant source of revenue for the Austrian government, with an annual net income of upwards of £60,000. The salt extracted from these mines was also used to create unique artworks, such as chandeliers that resemble cut glass and statues of Vulcan and Neptune.
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Frequently asked questions
By 1768, factional differences in Poland had led to civil war. Prussia, Austria, and Russia took advantage of this instability and claimed portions of Polish territory as their own.
Poland lost almost one-third of its territory, with lands in the west going to Prussia, lands in the southwest going to Austria, and lands in the east going to Russia.
The Second Partition of Poland ceded further land in the west to Prussia and in the east to Russia.
The Third Partition of Poland divided the remainder of Polish lands among Prussia, Austria, and Russia, effectively erasing Poland from the map.
The partitions of Poland resulted in the elimination of the sovereign state of Poland, which ceased to exist after the final partition. The main result of the partitions was in effect until after World War I, when the Polish republic was finally restored on November 11, 1918.
