Ruqayyah Snyder
Austrian nationalism has been challenged by German nationalism, which has historically favoured close ties with Germany and the possibility of Austria's incorporation into a Greater Germany. This was a significant source of tension in the years preceding World War I, as the Austro-Hungarian Empire was already struggling to maintain a shared national identity across its many ethnic groups. The rise of nationalism within the empire, including South Slav nationalism among the Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs, posed an existential threat to the unity of the empire, as various groups sought to form their own nations. German nationalism in Austria further contributed to this instability, leading to the eventual outbreak of World War I and the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
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What You'll Learn
Austrian nationalism conflicted with German nationalism
Secondly, Austrian nationalism sought to promote the cultural unity of Austrians and assert their identity as a distinct nation. This conflicted with German nationalism, which aimed to unite all ethnic Germans into one state, including those in Austria. The idea of a Greater Germany, encompassing Austrian territories, was a key aspect of German nationalism. However, Austrians resisted the loss of their autonomy and the potential dominance of Prussia in a unified German state.
Additionally, the rise of Nazism in Germany further complicated the relationship between Austrian and German nationalism. While some Austrians initially supported unification with Germany, the Nazi regime's policies and actions during World War II led to a rejection of German identity among Austrians. Many Austrians began to describe themselves as "Hitler's first victim" and emphasised their non-Germanic heritage, including Celtic, Illyrian, Roman, Slavic, and Magyar influences.
The conflict between Austrian and German nationalism was also influenced by political ideologies. The Fatherland Front, a right-wing conservative, nationalist organisation in Austria, advocated for Austrian independence and nationalism, opposing annexation into Nazi Germany. On the other hand, the Social Democrats in Austria, rooted in German nationalism, supported the concept of a unified German state.
Furthermore, the multi-ethnic nature of the Austro-Hungarian Empire added complexity to the conflict between Austrian and German nationalism. With various ethnic groups demanding political and cultural equality, the notion of a shared national identity became challenging. The rivalry between Germans and Czechs, for instance, intensified due to linguistic and cultural tensions, demonstrating the challenges of reconciling Austrian and German nationalism within a diverse empire.
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Austrian nationalism was Catholic-aligned
The Fatherland Front (VF), established on 20 May 1933 by Engelbert Dollfuss, was the right-wing conservative, nationalist, and corporatist ruling political organisation of the Federal State of Austria. It was fully aligned with the Catholic Church and did not advocate any racial ideology. The Dollfuss/Schnuschnigg government opposed annexation into Germany, especially under the Nazi regime, as they viewed it as a threat to Austrian Catholicism and national identity.
After the Austrian defeat in the Battle of Königgrätz in 1866, German Austrians in the Austro-Hungarian Empire felt excluded from the German nation-state. This exclusion was solidified by the unification of "Lesser Germany" under Prussian leadership in 1871, which did not include Austria. The German National Movement sought to protect German-language schools in parts of the Empire where German speakers were a minority. The rise of Austrian nationalism within the Christian Social Party identified Austrians based on their predominantly Catholic religious identity, in contrast to the predominantly Protestant identity of the Prussians.
The relationship between Austrian Catholicism, national identity, and fascism has been a source of controversy. While the Catholic Church opposed the NSDAP, and the proportion of Catholics who voted for the Nazi Party was lower than the national average, some Catholic-aligned groups did support the Nazis. For example, the Centre Party voted for the Enabling Act of 1933, which gave Hitler additional powers. However, overall, there was widespread condemnation of Nazism by Catholic bishops and cardinals, reflecting the views of most German Catholics.
Following World War II, Austrians began to develop a more distinct national identity, emphasising their non-Germanic heritage, including Celtic, Illyrian, Roman, Slavic, and Magyar influences. This shift away from a German identity in Austria further solidified the Catholic-aligned nature of Austrian nationalism.
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Serbian power threatened the unity of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
Secondly, Serbian nationalism and its appeal to other Slavic peoples within the Empire threatened the already fragile unity of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Empire encompassed multiple ethnic groups, each with their own national aspirations, and Serbian nationalism served as a rallying cry for those seeking to break away from Habsburg rule. This was especially true for the South Slav peoples, who felt a cultural and linguistic affinity with Serbia.
Thirdly, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by a Bosnian Serb nationalist in June 1914 provided the Empire with a casus belli to confront Serbia. The Empire, backed by its powerful ally Germany, presented Serbia with an ultimatum, the July Ultimatum, knowing that it would be rejected. Indeed, while Serbia accepted most of the demands, it only partially accepted one, which was enough for the Austro-Hungarian Empire to break off diplomatic relations and declare war.
Finally, the complex web of alliances in Europe meant that a conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia quickly escalated into a wider continental war. Russia, allied with Serbia, mobilized its army along its border with the Austro-Hungarian Empire, leading to fears in Vienna and Berlin that a general war was imminent. This, in turn, led to Germany declaring war on Russia, bringing their respective allies into the conflict, including France and Britain, ultimately resulting in the First World War.
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The rise of Bavarian nationalism challenged Austrian nationalism
Austrian nationalism is a movement that asserts Austrians as a nation and promotes cultural unity. It arose during the Napoleonic Wars, with its roots in Catholic religious identity, which led to its opposition to unification with Protestant-majority Prussia. This was seen as a threat to the Catholic core of Austrian national identity. Austrian nationalism also served to protect the rule of the Habsburgs.
The rise of Bavarian nationalism posed a challenge to Austrian nationalism, particularly after the defeat of Austria-Hungary in World War I. Bavarian nationalism advocated for Austria to join Bavaria, threatening the independence of the new Austrian Republic. The Bavarian government sought to incorporate the regions of North Tyrol and Upper Austria into Bavaria, which was a serious issue as many North Tyrolese expressed their intention to join Bavaria. This challenge to Austrian nationalism came at a time when Austrian nationalism was already facing internal struggles, with German nationalism posing as the main rival.
The origins of Bavarian nationalism as a strong political movement can be traced back to the Austro-Prussian War and its aftermath. Bavaria, sharing a Catholic culture with Austria, allied with them during the war against Protestant Prussia. However, they were defeated, and Bavaria was forced to pay a large indemnity and join the Prussian-founded German Empire in 1871. Bavarian nationalists strongly opposed Prussian domination and refused further integration into the German Empire.
After World War I, revolution spread across Bavaria, leading to the toppling of the Bavarian monarchy and the establishment of the Bavarian Soviet Republic as an independent communist state. Bavarian nationalism, associated with anti-Prussian and anti-Semitic sentiments, gained popularity among radical and reactionary movements. The Bavarian government's proposals for Austria to join Bavaria prompted the German government to respond with the Anschluss, proposing the unification of Austria into Germany.
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Austrian nationalism was used to protect the rule of the Habsburgs
Austrian nationalism was used as a tool to protect the rule of the Habsburgs. It first arose during the Napoleonic Wars, with Joseph von Hormayr as a prominent Austrian nationalist political leader. Austrian nationalism was originally a cultural nationalism that emphasised a Catholic religious identity. This Catholic identity was perceived as being under threat by unification with Protestant-majority Prussia.
In the 1930s, the Fatherland Front government of Engelbert Dollfuss and Kurt Schuschnigg opposed the idea of unification with a Protestant-dominated Germany, especially under the Nazi regime. They claimed that Catholic Austria would not accept unification with a Protestant Germany or a ""heathen" Nazi-led Germany. Instead, Dollfuss argued that Austria needed to revive itself and recognise its greatness, such as its Habsburg dynasty's leading role in the German Holy Roman Empire.
The Fatherland Front was a right-wing conservative, authoritarian, nationalist, and corporatist ruling political organisation of the Federal State of Austria. It claimed to be a nonpartisan movement, aiming to unite all Austrians and overcome political and social divisions. Established in 1933, it was organised along the lines of Italian Fascism, was aligned with the Catholic Church, and did not advocate any racial ideology.
After World War II, Austrian nationalism continued to evolve, and Austrians began to reject their German identity, embracing a broader Austrian identity instead. Proponents of Austrian nationalism emphasised the non-Germanic heritage of Austrian culture, including Celtic, Illyrian, Roman, Slavic, and Magyar influences. They also recognised Austria's status as the location of the first characteristically Celtic culture, the Hallstatt culture, and expressed pride in their Celtic heritage.
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Frequently asked questions
Austria-Hungary was a multi-national empire with many different ethnicities, so the rise of nationalism was always going to be a problem. The growth of nationalism in the years preceding World War One threatened to tear the empire apart as different nationalities wanted to form their own nations. Serbian power in the Balkans, for example, encouraged the rise of South Slav nationalism among the Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, most of whom lived within Austria-Hungary.
Serbian nationalism was viewed as an existential threat to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. When Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo, Austria-Hungary used this as an excuse to go to war with Serbia. This assassination provided the pretext to crush Serbia and unleashed World War I, which ultimately ended the empire.
The empire was dominated by Austrian Germans before 1867, after which the Hungarians were placed on an equal footing with the Germans. Each half of the empire had its own government and control of internal affairs, but nationalist rivalry between the Germans and Czechs in Bohemia became intense. The rise of nationalism was also fuelled by linguistic inequality, with the prosperous Czechs resenting German domination in areas such as language.
Austrian nationalism asserted that Austrians are a nation and promoted cultural unity, emphasising a Catholic religious identity. This led to opposition to unification with Protestant-majority Prussia and later, a rejection of annexation into Nazi Germany. Austrian nationalism was also used to protect the rule of the Habsburgs.
