Leslie Massey
Austria's annexation by Germany in March 1938 was the result of several factors, including Austrian dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Saint Germain, a lack of support from Western democracies, and international instability. The National Socialist movement in Austria, supported by Germany, played a significant role in this process. Hitler, an Austrian himself, had expressed his desire for the unification of Germany and Austria as early as 1923 in his book, Mein Kampf. The annexation caused concern in Washington, and while the United States did not officially recognize the union, it took note of the de facto situation.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of Annexation | 12th of March 1938 |
| Putsch of July 25th, 1934 | Resulted in the assassination of Chancellor Dollfuss |
| Agreement between Germany and Austria | Entered on July 11th, 1936 |
| Austrian Chancellor | Kurt Schuschnigg |
| German Chancellor | Adolf Hitler |
| German Troops | Ordered to cross the Austrian border at dawn on the 12th of March |
| German Embassy in Vienna | Goering dictated a telegram to justify military action |
| Austrian Nazi | Arthur Seyss-Inquart |
| US Reaction | Secretary of State Cordell Hull expressed concern about the maintenance of peace |
| US Domestic Problems | Prevented a stronger reaction to the annexation |
| US Policy | Did not desire an unnecessary rift with Germany |
| US-Germany Tensions | Increased due to Secretary Ickes' refusal to sell helium to Germany |
| Austrian Nazis Aim | Unification of Germany and Austria |
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What You'll Learn
Hitler's ultimatum to Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg
On 12 February 1938, Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg met with Adolf Hitler at his Berghof residence in an attempt to ease the worsening relations between their two countries. Schuschnigg, who considered Austria a "German state" and Austrians to be Germans, was strongly opposed to Hitler's goal of absorbing Austria into the Third Reich and wished for it to remain independent.
However, to Schuschnigg's surprise, Hitler presented him with an ultimatum, effectively demanding the handing over of power to the Austrian Nazis. Hitler's ultimatum included a series of demands: Schuschnigg must call off a planned plebiscite on the issue of unification, Austrian President Wilhelm Miklas must appoint the Austrian Nazi Arthur Seyss-Inquart as the new Austrian Chancellor, and 100 officers were to be exchanged between the Austrian and German armies. All imprisoned Nazis were to be amnestied and reinstated, and Hans Fischböck was to be named Minister of Finance to prepare for economic union between Germany and Austria.
In the face of this threat, Schuschnigg desperately sought support for Austrian independence from France and Britain, but to no avail. Realizing that he had no other option, Schuschnigg capitulated and submitted to Hitler's demands, appointing Seyss-Inquart to a key cabinet position and placing other Nazis or Nazi sympathizers in his cabinet. Despite this, Hitler still ordered the invasion of Austria, which took place over three days in March 1938, known as the Anschluss.
After the Anschluss, Schuschnigg was arrested and kept in solitary confinement before eventually being interned in various concentration camps. He was liberated in 1945 by the advancing United States Army and later gained American citizenship.
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Austria's dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Saint Germain
The Treaty of Saint-Germain, signed on 10 September 1919, was a source of dissatisfaction for Austria due to several factors:
Firstly, the treaty officially marked the breakup of the Habsburg Empire, recognising the independence of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Yugoslavia). This led to significant territorial losses for Austria, reducing its land to just 25% of its pre-war extent. Austria lost Bohemia and Moravia to Czechoslovakia, Dalmatia, Bosnia, and Herzegovina to Yugoslavia, Galicia to Poland, and Trentino, Istria, Trieste, and parts of South Tyrol to Italy. These losses included industrially productive areas, severely restricting Austria's economy and making them heavily dependent on trade.
Secondly, the treaty's restrictions on unification with Germany were a significant point of contention. Article 88 of the treaty prohibited Austria from compromising its independence by entering into political or economic union with the Weimar Republic without the agreement of the Council of the League of Nations. This was contrary to the desires of many Austrians, especially the majority German-speaking population, who supported the idea of Anschluss (political union) with Germany.
Additionally, the treaty imposed limitations on Austria's military strength, restricting its army to just 30,000 volunteers. It also included provisions for war reparations, requiring Austria to pay large sums to the Allies, further exacerbating their financial difficulties.
Moreover, the treaty failed to address the issue of food insecurity in Austria, which persisted before and after its signing. The new Republic of Austria, consisting mostly of German-speaking provinces, also faced challenges due to the loss of land, which contributed to its economic weakness between the two World Wars.
The dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Saint-Germain, coupled with the lack of consistent political and economic support from western democracies and the international instability of the 1930s, created a context in which support for Anschluss with Germany gained traction among Austrians.
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The US's pragmatic reaction to the annexation
The US did not recognise the German absorption of Austria, but it also did not want to pursue a forceful response. The US was aware that isolationists would not support a rift with Germany over the annexation, and so it continued normal economic relations. The US did, however, criticise the increasing lawlessness of Germany and formulated a foreign policy to respond more forcefully to Hitler's aggressive expansionism. The US also established an international organisation responsible for Austrian refugees in the aftermath of the union.
The US's reaction to the annexation of Austria by Germany in 1938 was therefore pragmatic and shaped by the domestic issues it faced at the time. The US had to balance its criticism of Germany's actions with the need to maintain economic relations and avoid unnecessary tension.
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The British Government's legal, economic and political concerns
The British Government's legal, economic, and political concerns regarding the Austrian annexation of Germany were multifaceted and complex.
Legal Concerns
The British Government had legal concerns regarding the compatibility of the proposed Austro-German customs union with existing treaties and the 1922 Geneva Protocol. In 1931, they submitted the question to the Council of the League of Nations, seeking clarification on the legal implications. The Permanent Court of International Justice found the proposed customs regime to be incompatible with the Geneva Protocol, specifically concerning the independence of Austria. This legal concern was a significant issue for the British as they wanted to ensure that any agreements with Austria would still be valid if it became part of the German Reich.
Economic Concerns
Economically, the British Government was worried about the impact of the annexation on commerce and trade relations. The Anglo-German treaties of commerce, navigation, extradition, and air navigation were affected by the union, and the British had to consider how to apply these treaties to Austria as part of the Reich. Additionally, the tourism industry between the countries was impacted, as Germany imposed an economic sanction ("1,000 Mark Sperre") in 1933, requiring its citizens to pay a hefty customs fee to visit Austria.
Political Concerns
Politically, the British Government faced a challenging situation. They had accepted the inevitability of an Austro-German union, but they also wanted to maintain Austrian independence. This delicate balance was influenced by the rise of the Nazis in Austria, who gained support due to Hitler's popularity in Germany. The British were concerned about the increasing aggression of Nazi Germany towards Austria and the potential for interference in Austrian affairs. They were also aware of the propaganda and terror campaigns waged by Austrian Nazis, which destabilized the country further.
The British Government's concerns culminated in the annexation of Austria by Germany in March 1938, which caused widespread protest and drew international attention. The British had to navigate complex political and economic relationships with both countries during this tumultuous period.
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Austria's independence after World War II
Austria was annexed by Germany in March 1938, in an event known as Anschluss. This annexation was the result of several factors, including Austrian dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Saint Germain, a lack of consistent support from Western democracies, and international instability. The National Socialist movement in Austria, supported by the National Socialists of Germany, also played a role in creating an "explosive situation" that led to the country's disappearance from the map.
During World War II, Austria was occupied by the Allies, and on April 27, 1945, it was declared independent from Nazi Germany per the Berlin Declaration for Germany. However, Austria remained under the joint occupation of the Western Allies and the Soviet Union until 1955. This joint occupation was agreed upon in the Declaration of Moscow in 1943, where the Allies acknowledged Austria as the first victim of Nazi aggression while also recognizing its role in Nazi crimes.
In the immediate aftermath of World War II, Austria was divided into four occupation zones controlled by the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, the United States, and France. The Soviet Union's policies in Austria during this period included the prosecution of Austrians for war crimes and everyday criminal activities. The Soviet government also adhered to the Moscow Declaration, guaranteeing Austria's independence and refraining from creating a communist client state as it did in East Germany.
The status of Austria became a controversial subject during the Cold War. In January 1955, Soviet diplomats secretly advised Vyacheslav Molotov to unlink Austrian and German issues, and he publicly announced three conditions for Austrian independence: neutrality, no foreign military bases, and guarantees against a new Anschluss. Austria was finally granted full independence on May 15, 1955, after promising perpetual neutrality, and the last occupation troops departed on October 25, 1955.
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Frequently asked questions
Germany's annexation of Austria in 1938 was the result of several factors, including Austrian dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Saint Germain, a lack of support from Western democracies, and international instability. The unification of Germany and Austria was a goal for Hitler, who was born in Austria, and the National Socialists in both countries.
The US government did not officially recognise the German absorption of Austria, but acknowledged the de facto situation. Secretary of State Cordell Hull stated that the incident endangered the maintenance of peace and was a serious concern for the US government.
The British government submitted the question of the annexation to the Council of the League of Nations and applied Anglo-German treaties of commerce, navigation, extradition, and air navigation.
The annexation drew worldwide attention and protest. The US, for example, established an organisation to help Austrian refugees, and Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes refused to sell helium to Germany.
Between 1938 and 1940, approximately 117,000 Jews fled Austria, and by November 1942, only about 7,000 Jews remained in the country. Approximately 65,000 Austrian Jews were killed in the Holocaust.
