Bolivia's Struggle For Democracy: A Complex History

Bolivia's government has been described as a democratic with an adjective state, exhibiting delegative features such as weak protection of liberal rights, politicized courts, and threats to the opposition and the press. The country's democracy has been unstable since its transition to this system of government in 1982, with ethnic inequality, economic strife, and conflicts over natural resources paving the way for democratic backsliding. Bolivia's democratic health has been questioned, particularly during the presidency of Evo Morales, who served from 2006 to 2019. Morales, a member of the MAS party, made strides toward social and economic equality for the indigenous people, but his leadership was marked by executive aggrandizement and the concentration of power. The 2019 election, in which Morales sought a fourth term, was marred by allegations of fraud, and he eventually resigned and fled the country. Bolivia's democracy remains uncertain, but the election of Luis Arce in 2020, also of the MAS party, may signal a new era for the country's democratic progress.

The influence of former president Evo Morales and his MAS party

Evo Morales, Bolivia's first indigenous president, was a prominent and influential figure in Bolivian politics for many years. He was the leader of the Movement for Socialism (MAS) party, which he had headed since 1998. Morales' influence was such that he was able to exert control over the MAS, with supporters defecting en masse from the ASP to the MAS when Morales and his backers split from the former.

Morales' influence was also felt in the fact that he was able to exert control over the selection of candidates for the MAS, even after his resignation. However, this influence was not without opposition, and there were protests against his interference in the selection process.

Morales' influence extended to foreign policy, too. He was part of the "pink tide" of left-wing leaders, and his anti-imperialist stance led to a deterioration in relations with the US. He expelled the US Ambassador, suspended the operations of the US Drug Enforcement Administration, and ousted the US Agency for International Development.

Morales' influence was also felt in the creation of a new constitution in 2009, which he had been working towards since his election in 2005. This new constitution established Bolivia as a plurinational state, reflecting the country's diversity and recognising its 36 different indigenous peoples. It also enshrined every Bolivian's right to water, food, free healthcare, education, and housing.

Morales' influence can also be seen in the fact that he was able to run for a fourth term as president, despite the 2016 referendum in which Bolivians rejected a constitutional change that would have allowed this. The MAS took the issue to the Constitutional Court, which abolished term limits altogether, allowing Morales to run again.

However, Morales' influence also contributed to political instability in Bolivia. His attempts to run for a fourth term led to weeks of unrest, and his apparent election victory was disputed by international election monitors, who found evidence of "clear manipulations" of the election result. This eventually led to his resignation in November 2019.

The country's history of military coups and countercoups

Bolivia has a long history of political instability, with more than 190 coups and revolutions since gaining independence from Spain in 1825. This is the highest number of coups of any country since 1950. The first coup in 1828 saw an uprising by the military garrison in Chuquisaca, resulting in the deposition of President Antonio José de Sucre. The following decades, from 1839 to 1879, witnessed a succession of military leaders overthrowing one another, with brief periods of democracy interspersed.

The chaotic political climate during this period ended with the resignation of Andrés de Santa Cruz in 1839, which led to José Ballivián declaring himself president. However, he only ruled for a week before being deposed by Eusebio Guilarte. In 1848, Manuel Isidoro Belzu overthrew José Miguel de Velasco and installed José Ballivián as president. This was followed by a bloody counter-coup led by General Velasco, which was ultimately defeated.

The latter half of the 19th century saw several more coups, with leaders such as Jorge Córdova, José María Linares, Mariano Melgarejo, Agustín Morales, Hilarión Daza, and Narciso Campero assuming power through force. In 1899, the Bolivian Civil War brought an end to Conservative rule, and a Liberal Era began, lasting until 1920.

The early 20th century was marked by a commodity boom fuelled by tin production, but poverty and inequality persisted, leading to the 1952 Revolution. This revolution brought about universal suffrage, significant agrarian reform, and the nationalisation of key industries. However, this progressive period was cut short by another coup in 1964, which ended the revolutionary government and ushered in a period of instability that lasted until 1982.

Despite transitioning to democracy in 1982, Bolivia continued to grapple with deep-rooted issues such as poverty, social inequality, and the marginalisation of Indigenous and Afro-Bolivian populations. The country has experienced several more coup attempts in recent years, including in 1984, 2020, and most recently in June 2024, when former army chief and general, Juan José Zúñiga, led an occupation of Plaza Murillo in La Paz.

The role of interim president Jeanine Anez

Bolivia's politics take place within a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, with the president as head of state, head of government, and head of a diverse multi-party system. However, the country has experienced periods of political instability, military coups, and counter-coups, as well as the influence of caudillos (local strongmen).

In 2019, Bolivia underwent a political crisis that led to the resignation of President Evo Morales and other officials in the line of succession. This created a power vacuum, and Jeanine Áñez, as the second vice president of the Senate, became the highest-ranking remaining member. On November 12, 2019, she convened an extraordinary session of the Plurinational Legislative Assembly, which lacked a quorum due to the absence of members of Morales' party, the Movement for Socialism (MAS). During this session, Áñez declared herself president of the Senate and then used that position to assume the presidency of the country, which was endorsed by the Supreme Court of Justice.

Jeanine Áñez Chávez, a Bolivian lawyer, politician, and former television presenter, served as the 66th president of Bolivia from 2019 to 2020. Before assuming the interim presidency, she had served two terms as senator for Beni from 2015 to 2019 and from 2010 to 2014. During her second term, she served twice as the second vice president of the Senate, making her the highest-ranking opposition legislator during the social unrest the country faced in late 2019.

Áñez's assumption of the presidency was met with a mixed response. Bolivian opposition and civic leaders praised her, with former president Carlos Mesa wishing her success in carrying out the transition process. However, members of the deposed MAS party expressed discontent and denounced what they viewed as a coup d'état. Morales himself tweeted that a "right-wing putschist senator" had proclaimed herself president.

During her presidency, Áñez issued a decree removing criminal liability for military and police in dealing with protesters, which was later repealed after widespread condemnation following the Senkata and Sacaba massacres. She launched criminal investigations into former MAS officials, terminated Bolivia's close links with the governments of Cuba, Nicaragua, and Venezuela, and improved relations with the United States.

Áñez initially pledged not to run for president in the upcoming elections but later launched her own presidential campaign, contributing to criticism that she was not a neutral actor in the transition. She withdrew her candidacy a month before the election, citing low poll numbers and the fear of splitting the opposition vote. Luis Arce, the MAS candidate, won the election.

After the end of her mandate, Áñez was arrested and charged with crimes related to her role in the alleged coup d'état of 2019, including conspiracy, sedition, and terrorism. She was sentenced to ten years in prison, with both the defense and prosecutors announcing their intention to appeal.

The impact of Bolivia's natural resources and mineral wealth

Bolivia's economy is largely driven by its natural resources, which have historically included cocoa, silver, and tin. The country has become a regional leader in economic growth, fiscal stability, and foreign reserves, though it remains a poor country. Bolivia's natural resources and mineral wealth have had a significant impact on its politics and development.

Bolivia's economy has traditionally been reliant on a single commodity, with silver, tin, and coca being the main exports. This has made the country vulnerable to volatile global prices, as evidenced by the impact of the falling price of tin in the 1980s, which affected one of Bolivia's main sources of income. The Bolivian government has made efforts to diversify the economy, particularly in the agricultural sector, but this has been challenging due to political instability and difficult topography.

The country's mining industry, particularly the extraction of natural gas and zinc, currently dominates its export economy. Bolivia has the second-largest natural gas reserves in South America, and the export of natural gas brings in millions of dollars per day in royalties, rents, and taxes. The discovery of significant natural gas reserves in 1997 led to increased privatization and investment in the energy sector by international companies, making Bolivia a player in the world energy market. However, the exportation of natural gas has also been politically hazardous, leading to the resignation of President Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada in 2003 due to opposition from the indigenous population.

Bolivia also has the largest concentration of lithium in the world, with reserves of approximately 5.5 million tons. The government has been cautious about developing these reserves as they are located in the salt flats, which are an important natural feature that boosts tourism in the region. Instead, the government has partnered with other countries, particularly in Asia, to develop and exploit these reserves.

The impact of natural resources and mineral wealth on Bolivia's politics and development is complex. On the one hand, the country has become a regional leader in economic growth and fiscal stability due to its natural resources. On the other hand, the reliance on a single commodity has made the country vulnerable to volatile global prices and has hindered efforts to modernize and diversify the economy. Additionally, the exploitation of natural resources has led to political instability and social issues, particularly regarding the indigenous population, who have faced structural discrimination and marginalization.

The country's progress in women's participation and gender equality

Bolivia has made significant progress in women's participation and gender equality, with the 2009 Constitution establishing equality between women and men. Bolivia now ranks second in the world for the most gender-equal government, with a council that is 53% female. Women's participation in Bolivian politics has increased by 16% as of 1992, and in the 2009 election, the number of women elected to parliamentary positions rose from 14% to 28%. As of 2010, 30% of the legislative branch seats were held by women.

Despite these advances, systemic issues such as the unequal distribution of resources and economic participation, along with gender-based violence, remain prevalent. Women in Bolivia face struggles and discrimination in several aspects of their lives, including education, health, and the labour market. Bolivian women are more likely to be illiterate than men, and maternal mortality and illiteracy among women are some of the highest rates in the world. Women also face domestic violence, with Bolivia having the highest prevalence of domestic violence against women among 12 Latin American countries, according to a study by the Pan American Health Organization.

To address these issues, the Bolivian government has implemented various measures. For example, the Joint Programme on Productive Patrimonial Assets Building and Citizenship Programme for Women in Extreme Poverty aims to assist indigenous rural women in attaining sustainable livelihoods through financial support and access to services such as savings accounts and credit lines. Additionally, laws have been passed to increase female political representation and participation, with a law passed in 1997 requiring 30% of political candidates to be women.

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