Leslie Massey
The origins of the hostility between Austria and Serbia can be traced back to the late 19th century when Serbia was a self-governing principality of the Ottoman Empire. As the Ottoman Empire began to collapse, both Austria and Serbia sought to acquire its remaining territories, leading to increasing tensions between the two nations. This rivalry intensified during the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913, when Austria-Hungary twice attempted to force Serbia to withdraw from newly gained positions by issuing ultimatums. The results of these wars, including the Treaty of London in 1913, which led to Serbia losing control of the Adriatic coast and gaining control of central and northern Macedonia, further fuelled the hostility between the two countries. Additionally, the presence of a significant Serb minority within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, who regarded Habsburg rule as oppressive, contributed to the growing animosity. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Bosnian Serb nationalist in 1914 provided the pretext for Austria-Hungary to confront Serbia, ultimately leading to the outbreak of World War I.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina | Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908, inflaming pan-Serb sentiment and contributing to World War I |
| Bosnian Crisis | The Bosnian Crisis of 1908-09 convinced Austrian diplomats that war with Serbia was inevitable |
| Austro-Hungarian Ultimatum | Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia on July 23, 1914, after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, by a Bosnian Serb nationalist |
| Austrian Alliance with Germany | Austria-Hungary secured the support of Germany before issuing the ultimatum to Serbia, ensuring "faithful support" against potential Russian intervention |
| Serbian Territorial Gains | Serbia's gains during the Balkan Wars, including control of the Adriatic coastline and Albania, were resented and feared by Austria-Hungary |
| Anti-Turkish Sentiment | The Italo-Turkish War in 1912 provoked anti-Turkish sentiment in the Balkan states, including Serbia, further straining relations with Austria-Hungary |
| Serbian Nationalism | Serbian nationalists were angered by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, which placated Hungary at the expense of recognizing Serbian claims |
| Habsburg Monarchy | Serbia, along with Italy and Romania, supported irredentist movements within the Habsburg monarchy, challenging Austrian rule |
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What You'll Learn
The Bosnian crisis of 1908-09
The roots of the crisis can be traced back to the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, which gave Austria-Hungary the right to occupy and administer Bosnia and Herzegovina, which were provinces of the Ottoman Empire. However, the legal title to the provinces remained with the Ottoman Empire. Despite this, Austria-Hungary invested significant resources in developing the region economically and strengthening its ties with the provinces.
In July 1908, the Young Turks staged a revolution in Constantinople (now Istanbul), establishing a constitutional government and initiating a reform program. Fearing that the new Turkish regime would regain control over Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Austrian foreign minister, Graf (Count) Lexa von Aehrenthal, resolved to annex the provinces. He met with the Russian foreign minister, Aleksandr P. Izvolsky, and on September 16, 1908, secured Russia's agreement not to object to the annexation in exchange for Austria's support for opening the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits to Russian warships.
On October 6 or 7, 1908, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. This action outraged Serbia, which had close geographical and ethnic ties to the provinces. Serbia demanded that Austria cede a portion of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Serbia, and Russia, facing strong anti-Austrian sentiment at home, was forced to support Serbia's claims.
The crisis escalated as Austria, backed by its ally Germany, threatened to invade Serbia if it persisted in its demands. Russia, having failed to secure strong support from its ally France, was unable to risk a war against both Austria-Hungary and Germany. In March 1909, Russia ultimately accepted Austria's annexation, and Serbia followed suit soon after, recognizing the annexation and ceasing anti-Austrian agitation.
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Serbian nationalism
During the Balkan Wars (1912-1913), fought over the remnants of the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary twice attempted to force Serbia to withdraw from gained positions through ultimatums. In 1913, Austria-Hungary contemplated military action against Serbia but lacked support from Italy and Germany. Serbia's territorial gains were eventually acquiesced, further contributing to tensions. Serbian nationalism also influenced the Kingdom of Serbia's stance during the First World War, as it sought to unite all South Slavs in a state known as Yugoslavia.
The interwar period witnessed continued antagonism between Serbian nationalists and Croatian and Slovenian nationalists, who favoured a decentralised Yugoslavia. Serbian nationalists associated with a centralist vision of Yugoslavia, which they believed guaranteed the unity of the Serbs. This conflict culminated in the 1928 assassination of Stjepan Radić on the floor of the Yugoslav parliament, leading to the deterioration of parliamentary democracy in the country. Serbian nationalism also contributed to violent ethnic conflict during World War II, with nationalist Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, and others engaging in sectarian violence.
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Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina
The annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary in 1908 was a significant event in the lead-up to World War I, inflaming tensions with Serbia and contributing to the “Bosnian Crisis" or "Annexation Crisis". This crisis was a period of severe international tension and a severe diplomatic crisis for Austria-Hungary.
The roots of the crisis can be traced back to the 1870s when violent rebellions against Ottoman rule in the Balkans were met with violent and repressive responses from the Ottoman Empire. In the Budapest Conventions of 1877, Russia agreed to allow Austria-Hungary to control Bosnia-Herzegovina in exchange for their neutrality in the impending war with the Ottomans. This agreement was formalised in the Treaty of Berlin of 1878, which allowed Austria-Hungary to occupy and administer the provinces, while legal ownership remained with the Ottoman Empire.
In the following decades, Austria-Hungary invested significant resources into developing and integrating the region economically, recognising its strategic value. However, the largely Slavic population of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as their fellow Slavs in nearby Serbia, had nationalist ambitions, which clashed with Austria-Hungary's interests in the region. Serbia, in particular, sought to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina to further its pan-Slavic ambitions.
In 1908, when the Young Turks overthrew the Ottoman government in Constantinople, establishing a constitutional government, the Austrian foreign minister, Alois Aehrenthal, seized the opportunity to solidify Austria-Hungary's position in the Balkans. On October 6, 1908, Austria-Hungary announced its annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, arguing that it was preserving the balance of power in Europe. This unilateral action sparked outrage, particularly from Serbia, which demanded that Austria cede a portion of the annexed territory.
The crisis escalated further when the Russian foreign minister, Alexander Izvolsky, faced with strong popular opposition to the annexation in Russia, was forced to support Serbia's claims. Austria-Hungary's actions also upset the fragile balance of power in the Balkans, enraging pan-Slavic nationalists throughout Europe and leading to a diplomatic crisis with Russia, which felt humiliated and threatened. This crisis ultimately contributed to the deterioration of relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbours, especially Serbia, and laid the groundwork for World War I.
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The Treaty of London
The treaty also included promises of land to Serbia and Montenegro, as these nations were needed to counter Bulgaria's entrance into the war on the side of the Central Powers. However, the partial implementation of the treaty had significant consequences, especially in post-war Italy. Italy faced military setbacks, social unrest, and a damaged economy. The failure to fully realize the promised territorial gains became known as a "mutilated victory" in Italy, leading to a crisis with its western allies and fueling Italian ambitions for empire-building in Africa and the Balkans.
Article 1 of the treaty stated that a military agreement would be concluded to guarantee the number of troops committed by Russia against Austria-Hungary, preventing it from concentrating its forces against Italy. Articles 11 and 14 promised Italy a share in any war indemnity and a loan of 50 million pounds sterling, respectively. Article 15 assured Entente support for Italian opposition to the inclusion of the Holy See in any war-related settlements.
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The July Crisis
Austria-Hungary sought to use the assassination as a pretext for a military blow against Serbia, which they viewed as a threat to the unity of their multi-national empire due to its support for Yugoslav nationalism. On 23 July, Austria-Hungary, with the encouragement and backing of Germany, delivered an ultimatum to Serbia that was deliberately crafted to be unacceptable, demanding, among other things, a German-led inquiry that would violate Serbian sovereignty. Serbia surprisingly agreed to almost all of the demands, but Austria-Hungary nonetheless broke off diplomatic relations and declared war on 28 July.
The possibility of Russian intervention in support of Serbia loomed over the crisis, as Russia was bound by agreement to protect Serbia in the event of an attack. Germany and Austria-Hungary anticipated that their support would mean the war would be localised to Austria-Hungary and Serbia, especially if they acted quickly while European powers were still sympathetic to them in the wake of the assassinations. However, Russia's partial mobilisation and the failure of diplomatic efforts to avert war, such as Britain's proposed mediation conference, led to a widening of the conflict.
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Frequently asked questions
Austria-Hungary resented and feared the sudden growth of Serbia. They also wanted Serbia to give up both the Adriatic coast and Albania. Serbia's gains in the Balkans were often thwarted by Austria, which angered Serbia.
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, by the Bosnian Serb nationalist, Gavrilo Princip, on June 28, 1914, was the immediate cause. Austrian officials suspected that the Serbian government was involved.
The Serbian government agreed to all the demands except two, which entailed constitutional changes. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, and with the help of German and Bulgarian forces, Serbia was conquered and divided into separate occupation zones.
