Ruqayyah Snyder
The unification of Germany in the 1870s was a complex process, and Austria's exclusion from this union was influenced by several factors. Firstly, the Austrian Empire comprised multiple nationalities and ethnicities, making it difficult for the country to maintain its integrity. Secondly, Prussia, a dominant force in the unification process, had a rivalry with Austria, which led to wars and territorial disputes. Additionally, the Austrian Empire was in a state of decline, losing its leading position in the German-speaking world. Bismarck, a key figure in German unification, deliberately isolated Austria and formed alliances with other powers to strengthen Prussia's position. The unification of Germany under Bismarck resulted in the creation of the German Empire, which excluded Austria-Hungary. Despite attempts to unify Austria and Germany, such as the Anschluss movement, and close relations due to shared history and language, Austria and Germany remained separate entities until they both joined the European Union in 1995.
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What You'll Learn
Austria's diverse ethnicities and nationalities
In the 16th century during the Habsburg rule, the term "Austrian" emerged to describe the population of the region. However, it was not until the 19th century that a distinct Austrian national identity began to develop, separate from the German identity. During this time, the term "Austrian" referred to the citizens of the Empire of Austria, which was created in 1804 when the last of the Holy Roman Emperors became Emperor of Austria as Francis I. The Empire of Austria was a collection of diverse political entities, including kingdoms, archduchies, duchies, and earldoms, with the Habsburg dynasty as the sole unifying power.
The Austrian Empire, later reshaped as Austria-Hungary in 1867, was a multi-national and linguistically diverse monarchy. According to an 1868 ethnographic map, German was the most commonly spoken language (25.2%), followed by Czech, Hungarian, and Romanian, among other national languages. The Austrian population was made up of various ethnic groups, with Germans being the majority ethnic group. However, it is important to note that the concept of ethnicity is complex and fluid, and the diverse cultural influences from neighbouring regions have shaped the Austrian identity over time.
The question of Austrian unification with Germany has been a significant aspect of Austria's history. While there was support for unification, particularly among German nationalists and radical democrats, regional patriotism and the desire to preserve the Habsburg Monarchy presented obstacles. The idea of a ""greater-German solution," which advocated for the full incorporation of Austria into a new Germany, posed a threat to the monarchy's existence. Ultimately, the unification of Germany as a nation-state under Bismarck in 1871 excluded Austria, marking a shift in the dynamics between the two countries.
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Austria's loss of leadership
The Austrian Empire, which included various nationalities and ethnicities, was facing a period of decay and internal instability. The idea of a "greater-German solution" gained traction among German nationalists and radical democrats in Austria, who favoured unification with Germany even if it meant the end of the Habsburg Monarchy. This presented a significant challenge to the Monarchy's existence and its leading position in the German-speaking world.
Additionally, Prussia's rise as a dominant power in central Europe posed a direct threat to Austria's leadership. Prussia's military and economic superiority, combined with Bismarck's deliberate efforts to weaken and isolate Austria, resulted in the unification of the German states without Austria. Prussia's victory in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 further solidified its dominance, and the subsequent creation of the German Empire excluded Austria-Hungary. This marked a shift in Austria's status, moving it away from its historical leadership role in unification efforts.
The decline of Austrian influence was also influenced by the outcome of World War I. The Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye imposed harsh terms on Austria, causing it to lose a significant portion of its pre-war territory and reducing it to a rump state. These treaties also expressly forbade the unification of Austria and Germany, further diminishing Austria's leadership prospects.
In summary, Austria's loss of leadership was a result of internal instability, the rise of Prussia, the decline of the Habsburg Monarchy, and the post-World War I treaties that restricted its territorial integrity and prohibited unification with Germany. These factors collectively contributed to Austria's diminished position in the German-speaking world and beyond.
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Prussia's military and economic superiority
Prussia's economic superiority over Austria was due to several factors. Firstly, the acquisition of land on the Rhine and in the Saarland in 1815 gave Prussia access to vast amounts of raw materials, including coal, iron, and wood, which boosted its industrial production. From the 1850s onwards, Prussia began to surpass Austria in industrial output. By 1866, Prussia's economy was rapidly growing, aided by the German customs union, the Zollverein, which Austria struggled to compete with. The Zollverein made trade between Prussia and other German states easier and more profitable, and Prussia had also become a leader in building road and rail networks to promote trade. By 1870, Prussia had double the length of railway lines of Austria and produced five times more iron. Prussia was also producing more key resources such as coal and was the most industrialised state in Germany.
In addition to Prussia's economic superiority, its military might also played a crucial role. Prussia's economic strength enabled it to develop a more modernised army. Its officers travelled to observe the American Civil War, learning new military tactics and strategies, and bringing this knowledge back to improve the Prussian army. Prussia was able to equip its armies with breech-loading rifles and new Krupp breech-loading artillery. The Prussian army's superior abilities were recognised by Bismarck, who was encouraged to go to war with Austria due to this advantage. The Prussian army's generals, such as Albrecht Graf von Roon and Helmuth Graf von Moltke, were also key to its success.
While Austria had long been opposed to the unification of German states, its power declined after 1850, and it became increasingly isolated. It lost key allies, such as Russia, due to its refusal to aid during the Crimean War. Austria's poor performance in the 1859 war with France further emphasised the backwardness and inefficiency of its industry and economy. As Prussia rose in economic and military power, the smaller German states began to look to it for trade and leadership, ultimately leading to the unification of the German states under Prussian hegemony.
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Austria's rivalry with Prussia
Austria and Prussia were the most powerful German states in the Holy Roman Empire by the 18th and 19th centuries. The rivalry between the two states was characterised by major territorial conflicts and economic, cultural, and political aspects.
The rivalry between Austria and Prussia can be traced back to the death of the Habsburg Emperor Charles VI in 1740, which led to a dispute over the succession to the Austrian throne. Charles' daughter, Maria Theresa, succeeded him, but rival claimants disputed her right to do so. While France supported these rival claimants, it was the new Prussian king, Frederick II (1740-1786), who began the conflict by invading Austrian-controlled Silesia, starting the First Silesian War. This was the first of three Silesian Wars between Austria and Prussia, which also fought together during the Napoleonic Wars.
In the mid-19th century, the rise of nationalism in Germany brought the question of unification to the fore. German nationalists demanded a unified Germany, but they were divided over which nation-state should accomplish this. The “Lesser Germany” solution favoured Protestant Prussia annexing all German states except Austria, while “Greater Germany” favoured Catholic Austria taking control of the separate German states. Austria proposed to unite the German states in a union centred on and dominated by the Habsburgs, but Prussia wanted to exclude Austria from its affairs and become the central force in unifying the German states. Prussia succeeded in creating a German Customs Union with northern German states in 1834, with the hope of a political union as the next step.
The rivalry between Austria and Prussia culminated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, which resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states. Prussia also allied with the Kingdom of Italy, linking this conflict to the Third Independence War of Italian unification. The major result of the Austro-Prussian War was a shift in power among the German states away from Austria and towards Prussia, leading to the abolition of the German Confederation and its partial replacement by the unification of all northern German states in the North German Confederation, which excluded Austria and the other southern German states. After Prussia's victory in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, Bismarck announced the creation of the German Empire, which again excluded Austria-Hungary. Thus, the unification of Germany as a nation-state under Prussia was completed in 1871, and the rivalry between the two states is often seen as subsiding after the Congress of Berlin in 1878.
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The creation of the German Confederation
After Napoleon's defeat in 1815, Austria created the German Confederation as a new organisation among the German states, in which Prussia and Austria were reunited. The German Confederation lacked a monarch or a central government with real unifying force. During this period, the ideology of Pan-Germanism started to rise. Austria proposed to unite the German states in a union centred on, and dominated by, the Habsburgs. However, Prussia also wanted to be the central force in unifying the German states, but without Austria involved in its affairs.
The Austrian Empire was decaying, as it contained too many nationalities and ethnicities, and the German drive for unification was becoming an increasingly important issue in the public sphere. Bismarck deliberately weakened Austria's position in Europe, knowing that Austria was a major obstacle to unification. He formed alliances with other major powers, such as Russia and France, and used events such as the Danish King's invasion of Schleswig to weaken Austria and strengthen Prussia. Prussia succeeded in creating a German Customs Union with northern German states, with the hope of political union as the next step.
The dualism within the German Confederation laid the foundation for diplomatic tension between Prussia and Austria, as they had different proposals for unifying the German states. There were two possible solutions to the problem, both of which threatened the Habsburg Monarchy's existence. The first was the unification of German-speaking lands without Austria. The second solution was for the German Confederation to become a federal state and then a German nation-state, but the role of the Habsburg Monarchy in this context was a major problem, as it would compete with Prussia for the leading position.
After Prussia's victory in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, Bismarck announced the creation of the German Empire, which excluded Austria-Hungary. By 1871, Prussia had established its military and economic superiority in central Europe, and the unification of the German states was achieved, isolating Austria.
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Frequently asked questions
Austria did want unification, but only if it could dominate the unified German state. However, Prussia wanted to exclude Austria from the unification and become the central force itself. This rivalry and competition for leadership, combined with Austria's declining power and influence, led to Austria's defeat at the Battle of Königgrätz in 1866, resulting in its isolation and the unification of the German states without it.
The involvement of Austria, dominated by the Habsburg Monarchy, in the unification process put the monarchy in a dangerous situation as it had to compete with Prussia for leadership. The unification of Germany under Prussia meant the end of the Habsburg Monarchy's leading position in the German-speaking world.
Otto von Bismarck deliberately worked to isolate Austria and weaken its position in Europe. He formed alliances with Russia, France, and Italy, ensuring that they would be unlikely to aid Austria in any conflict. He also manipulated events surrounding territorial disputes to make Austria appear as the aggressor. These actions ultimately led to the Austro-Prussian War, which ended with Austria's defeat and the formation of the North German Confederation, excluding Austria.
The exclusion of Austria from the unification resulted in its decline and isolation. Austria lost significant territory and influence, including its leading position in the German-speaking world. The idea of unification with Germany, known as "Anschluss," gained support after World War I, but it was forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint Germain to prevent the formation of a dominant German state.
