Austria's Secularization: The Role Of Historical Factors

Secularization is the process by which the sacred gives way to the secular, whether in matters of personal faith, institutional practice, and political power. It involves a transition in which things once revered become ordinary, the sanctified becomes mundane, and the otherworldly loses its prefix. Secularization is a historical dynamic that may occur gradually or suddenly and may be replaceable (if not reversible).

The concept of secularization has been both an organizing theme and a source of contention among scholars of religion since the beginning of the European Enlightenment in the seventeenth century. One might expect an increasing consensus on a matter so long on the scholarly agenda, but discord has crescendoed in recent years. Secularization has taken on different meanings in different camps. It matters whether the reference is to religion's displacement, decline, or change; to the sacred at the level of the individual, the institution, the community, or the culture; or to a pattern that is long term, linear, and inevitable or short term, cyclical, and contingent.

The term secularization dates back to France in the mid-seventeenth century. The first high priest of this antichurch was the French bourgeois intellectual Voltaire (1694–1778). A professed deist whose belief in impersonal forces stood in sharp contrast to theistic conceptions of a personal God, Voltaire railed against the Catholicism's superstitions and ecclesiastical trappings (Voltaire 1756). However, Voltaire was not the most materialist figure of his day and he was distinguished more by the expression of his views than by their substance, including his sense that the end of religion was near, possibly in his lifetime. The main thrust of his views was shared by many Europeans and Americans, including Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson.

The prophets of secularization soon multiplied. By the second half of the nineteenth century, they included the father or at least namer of sociology, the French positivist Comte (1852). Comte's conception of a future that belonged more to the social sciences than to religion was shared by Britain's Spencer (1874), whose sales rivaled those of Dickens. Marx ([1844] 1963) envisioned a denarcotized future once the masses learned the real secret of their misery, substituted class consciousness for false consciousness, and exchanged otherworldly sighs for this-worldly action.

In the 20th century, the Austrian Empire was dominated by the House of Habsburg and House of Habsburg-Lorraine from 1273 to 1918. In 1806, when Emperor Francis II of Austria dissolved the Holy Roman Empire, Austria became the Austrian Empire, and was also part of the German Confederation until the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. In 1867, Austria formed a dual monarchy with Hungary: the Austro-Hungarian Empire. When this empire collapsed after the end of World War I in 1918, Austria was reduced to the main, mostly German-speaking areas of the empire (its current frontiers), and adopted the name, the Republic of German-Austria. However, union with Germany and the chosen country name were forbidden by the Allies at the Treaty of Versailles. This led to the creation of the First Austrian Republic (1919–1933).

The rise of science and technology

Austria has a strong commitment to research and development (R&D), with the number of personnel engaged in R&D increasing by 10% from 2017 to 2019. In 2020, Austria spent €12.1 billion on R&D, with approximately 70% spent in the business enterprise sector. Austrian businesses financed about 50% of the total R&D expenditure, while the public sector contributed 33%.

The Austrian Science Fund (FWF), the Austrian Research Promotion Agency (FFG), and "Austria Wirtschaftsservice" (AWS) are the main agencies that manage the funding for basic and applied research, development, and innovation on behalf of the ministries. The European Commission has also recognized Austria's commitment to innovation, ranking it 7th in the EU-wide Innovation Union Scoreboard.

However, it is important to note that the relationship between science, technology, and secularization is complex and multifaceted. While the advancement of science and technology can contribute to secularization by providing alternative explanations and approaches to understanding the world, it is not the sole factor. Other factors, such as social, cultural, and political changes, also play a role in the secularization process.

The development of new techniques

The Industrial Revolution and the rise of new technologies in the 19th century led to the development of new techniques that reduced the sense of dependence on the divine. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the 18th century, led to the mechanization of production processes and the development of new technologies such as the steam engine. These new technologies reduced the need for divine intervention in everyday life and led to the assumption that social well-reference depended not on God's providence but on social planning.

The evolution of new ways of thinking

The development of monotheistic religions, such as Judaism, Protestantism, and Catholicism, involved the rationalization and systematization of conceptions of the supernatural. This process gradually extinguished the plethora of random, local magical ideas and local deities. Monotheistic religions were themselves agencies of rationalization and, therefore, agents of secularization.

The Enlightenment, which began in the 17th century, was a key period in the evolution of new ways of thinking. This intellectual movement, which originated in France, was characterized by a focus on reason, skepticism, and the rejection of religious authority. The Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and rationality contributed to the decline of religion's influence in society.

The growth of science and technology also played a role in the evolution of new ways of thinking. As scientific knowledge and technological advancements progressed, magical, mystical, and metaphysical patterns of thought became less congruous with functional activities, which were governed by well-articulated structures of specific roles.

The rise of industrialization and urbanization also contributed to the evolution of new ways of thinking. As people moved to cities and became more urbanized, they became more detached from the stable communal contexts and settled order of past generations, where religious predilections had been rooted. Social organization became less dependent on the local community, and more dependent on rational structures and impersonal action.

The rise of rationality

The term "secularization" was first used in the 17th century to describe the transfer of territories from ecclesiastical control to lay political authorities. Over time, the term took on a more general, sociological connotation, referring to the loss of control of social institutions by religious authorities.

In the context of Austria, the rise of rationality was closely linked to the Enlightenment and the ideas of prominent thinkers such as Voltaire, Comte, and Marx. These thinkers challenged traditional religious beliefs and promoted a more scientific and rational worldview. This shift in thinking led to a decline in the influence of the Catholic Church, which had previously held significant power in Austrian society.

Additionally, the increasing industrialization and urbanization of Austrian society led to a more secular mindset among the population. As people's lives became more removed from nature, supernatural explanations of the world became less plausible, and scientific and technological advancements took precedence.

Overall, the rise of rationality played a significant role in the secularization of Austria by challenging traditional religious beliefs and institutions and promoting a more scientific and secular worldview.

The rise of individualism

The French Revolution of 1789 was a major turning point in the history of Austria, as it led to the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and the establishment of the Austrian Empire. This marked the beginning of a new era in which the power of the Church was gradually diminished.

The Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution brought about a shift in values, with a greater emphasis on rationality, science, and technology. This led to a decline in religious influence and a rise in secularism. The ideas of the Enlightenment spread throughout Europe, challenging traditional religious beliefs and practices.

Overall, the rise of individualism in Austria was a complex process influenced by a variety of social, political, and economic factors. It was shaped by the Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution, and the rise of nationalism, all of which contributed to the decline of religious authority and the emergence of a more secular and individualistic society.

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