Lyla Lindsey
The policy of appeasement, most commonly associated with British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, was a diplomatic strategy in the 1930s to avoid war with Nazi Germany by making political, material, and territorial concessions. This involved allowing Hitler to expand German territory, including the annexation of Austria in 1938, known as the 'Anschluss'. While the Munich Agreement of 1938, which allowed Germany to occupy the Sudetenland, was initially celebrated as a victory for peace, it later became clear that appeasement had failed to prevent World War II.
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What You'll Learn
Austria's annexation by Germany in 1938
In the 1930s, Britain and France pursued a policy of appeasement towards Nazi Germany to avoid war. This policy of making concessions to an aggressive foreign power was also applied to Fascist Italy. The British government was led by Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, who is most closely associated with appeasement.
In March 1938, German troops marched into Austria to annex the German-speaking nation for the Third Reich. This event is known as the Anschluss, which roughly translates to "joinder", "connection", "unification", or "political union". The annexation of Austria was the Nazi German regime’s first act of territorial aggression and expansion. It was widely popular in both Germany and Austria, with Austrian Nazis conspiring to seize the Austrian government by force and unite their nation with Nazi Germany. Austrian Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg attempted to prevent the German annexation of Austria by calling a plebiscite (referendum) on Austrian independence. However, on March 11, 1938, the Germans pressured Schuschnigg to cancel the plebiscite and resign.
Hitler's journey through Austria became a triumphal tour, culminating in Vienna on March 15, 1938, when around 200,000 cheering German Austrians gathered to hear him proclaim the unification of Austria and Germany. The annexation of Austria existed as a federal state of Germany until the end of World War II, when the Allied powers declared the Anschluss void and re-established an independent Austria.
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Britain's policy of appeasement towards Nazi Germany
The roots of the appeasement policy lay in the fear of Bolshevism and the trauma of World War I, which had devastated Europe and left Britain psychologically, economically, and militarily unprepared for another large-scale conflict. Additionally, there were second thoughts about the perceived vindictive treatment of Germany under the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, and a perception that fascism could serve as a useful bulwark against communism. Many in Britain, including leading journalists, academics, and members of the royal family, supported the appeasement policy.
The Munich Agreement of 1938, signed by Britain, France, Germany, and Italy, is often cited as the best-known example of appeasement. Chamberlain agreed to allow Germany to occupy the Sudetenland, a German-speaking part of Czechoslovakia, in exchange for a promise of "peace for our time." However, Hitler's expansionist aims continued, and in March 1939, he violated the Munich Agreement by occupying the rest of Czechoslovakia. This marked a turning point, as Chamberlain abandoned appeasement and adopted a policy of resistance to further German aggression.
Winston Churchill, who was estranged from the government at the time, was one of the few prominent voices to oppose appeasement and warn about the dangers posed by Hitler. His calls for Britain to prepare for war were seen as hawkish and paranoid by many, including members of his own Conservative Party, who supported Chamberlain's policy of appeasement.
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The Munich Agreement, 1938
The Munich Agreement was a settlement reached between Germany, Great Britain, France, and Italy on 29-30 September 1938. The agreement permitted German annexation of the Sudetenland, a German-speaking region in western Czechoslovakia.
The agreement was signed by German Chancellor Adolf Hitler, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier, and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. The Sudetenland was of strategic importance to Czechoslovakia, as its mountainous borderland presented a natural obstacle to a potential German attack. However, the region was also significant to Hitler, as it was home to about three million people of German origin.
The Munich Agreement is often regarded as the best-known example of appeasement. Appeasement is a diplomatic strategy that involves making concessions to an aggressive foreign power to avoid war. In the case of the Munich Agreement, Britain and France informed Czechoslovakia that it could either resist Germany alone or submit to the prescribed annexations. Unwilling to stand alone against Germany, Czechoslovakia reluctantly agreed to the terms of the Munich Agreement.
The agreement was initially celebrated as a victory for peace, with Chamberlain proclaiming that he had secured "peace for our time". However, Hitler's true intentions became clear when he seized the rest of Czechoslovakia on March 15, 1939, violating the terms of the agreement. This was followed by the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, marking the start of World War II.
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The Sudetenland crisis
Hitler's interest in the Sudetenland was driven by multiple factors. Firstly, the region held strategic importance due to its location along the German-Czechoslovak border, surrounded by German territory on three sides. Additionally, the Sudetenland was home to a significant number of ethnic Germans, known as Sudeten Germans, who constituted a sizeable minority within Czechoslovakia. These Germans faced complaints of discrimination from the Czech government, providing Hitler with a pretext to intervene. Furthermore, Czechoslovakia's diverse population included Poles, Hungarians, and other national groups, leading to competing claims over the region from neighbouring countries.
Hitler's intentions towards the Sudetenland became evident in late 1938, as he increasingly advocated for the region's incorporation into the German Reich. This triggered the Sudeten Crisis, with the Czechoslovak military bolstering their border fortifications in response. The crisis escalated when Sudeten Nazis, led by Konrad Henlein, demanded autonomy and complete equality with the Czech people. On April 24, 1938, the SdP proclaimed the Karlsbader Programm, outlining these demands in eight points, which the Czechoslovak government accepted on June 30, 1938.
In an attempt to defuse the situation, Chamberlain sent Lord Runciman to Czechoslovakia in August 1938 to mediate between the Czechoslovak government and the Germans in the Sudetenland. However, these efforts proved futile. Chamberlain then met with Hitler on September 15, agreeing to the cession of the Sudetenland, followed by a similar agreement with French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier three days later. Notably, no Czechoslovak representatives were included in these discussions. On September 22, Hitler demanded not only the annexation of the Sudetenland but also the immediate military occupation of Bohemia, Moravia, and Slovakia, giving Czechoslovakia a deadline of September 28, 2:00 p.m.
The crisis culminated in the Munich Agreement, signed on September 30, 1938, between Germany, the United Kingdom, France, and Italy. This agreement sanctioned the German occupation of the Sudetenland, with German troops moving into the region shortly after. Chamberlain proclaimed that he had secured "peace for our time," but his claim proved false as World War II erupted within a year. The Sudetenland crisis exposed the shortcomings of appeasement policies, as Hitler's aggression remained unchecked, ultimately leading to the outbreak of war.
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The failure of the League of Nations
The League of Nations was established after World War I with the aim of improving international cooperation and preventing future wars. However, the League ultimately failed in its primary objective, as it could not prevent the outbreak of World War II. Here are some reasons behind its failure:
Lack of Legitimacy and Representation
The League lacked legitimacy due to the absence of several major powers as members, including the United States, the Soviet Union, and China. Additionally, Germany was only a member for a few years, and other nations like Italy and Japan openly defied the League's authority. The League also lacked representation from many African and Asian countries, as most of these regions were under European colonial rule at the time.
Weak Enforcement Mechanisms
The League had no military force or economic power of its own and relied on its members to enforce its decisions. This lack of enforcement mechanisms meant that the League struggled to respond effectively when its decisions were ignored or defied. For example, when Japan invaded Manchuria in 1932, the League objected, but could not prevent the occupation.
Failure to Maintain Collective Security
The League's failure to maintain collective security among its members contributed to its downfall. Britain and France, two of the most influential members, often prioritized their own interests over collective security. For instance, they chose to appease Hitler and Mussolini instead of taking a firm stand against their aggressive actions. This undermined the League's authority and made it difficult to maintain international peace and security.
Limitations of Diplomacy
The League's focus on diplomacy and negotiation had limited effectiveness in the face of rising extremism and nationalism. The League struggled to comprehend and counter the new threats posed by fascist dictatorships in Germany, Italy, and Japan, which were intent on expanding their empires and challenging the international order.
Economic Crisis and Political Marginalization
The world economic depression of the 1930s encouraged nations to become more aggressive and protective of their interests. This made international cooperation and collective security more challenging. Additionally, the League's political marginalization during this period further weakened its influence and ability to maintain peace.
In conclusion, the failure of the League of Nations resulted from a combination of factors, including legitimacy issues, weak enforcement, member countries' self-interest, the rise of extremist ideologies, and the economic crisis of the 1930s. These factors ultimately led to the League's inability to prevent the outbreak of World War II.
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Frequently asked questions
Appeasement is a diplomatic strategy involving making concessions to an aggressive foreign power in order to avoid war.
Britain appeased Austria because it was widely believed that the Treaty of Versailles caused terrible resentment in Germany, which Hitler exploited to gain power. The British government believed that if these grievances were addressed, Hitler would be satisfied and less demanding.
Britain's appeasement of Austria did not prevent World War II. Despite his promise of 'no more territorial demands in Europe', Hitler continued his expansionist agenda, violating the Munich Agreement by occupying the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939.
Britain's policy of appeasement is now widely discredited as a policy of weakness. Winston Churchill, a vocal opponent of appeasement, described the Munich Agreement as 'an unmitigated disaster'.
