Omari Gates
Barley is the second-largest cereal crop in Australia, grown on almost four million hectares of land from Western Australia to the eastern seaboard. It is a highly sought-after crop, with Australia representing up to 30% of the world's malt barley trade and 20% of the feed barley trade. The crop is grown in a variety of environments, but several factors, including foliar diseases, water stress, and frost, can reduce potential yield. In Victoria, barley has been yielding higher in drier springs, and new herbicide-tolerant varieties have allowed growers to control the Brome Grass weed. Western Australia produces barley that is plump and bright with a moderate protein concentration, and the state is home to the largest barley malting facility in the southern hemisphere.
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What You'll Learn
Western Australia is a top barley-growing region
The crop is grown on approximately four million hectares of land in Western Australia and is broadly segregated into two categories: malting barley and feed barley. The Boormalt facility in Forrestfield is the largest barley malting facility in the southern hemisphere, with about 250,000 tonnes of barley malted each year. The majority of the malt is exported, while the remaining is used in the local domestic beer market. Pilot Malting Australia (PMA), a national pilot malting facility, was established in Perth in 2010 to test smaller quantities of malting barley using commercial malting processes.
Western Australia's climate is conducive to barley production, with the crop requiring specific conditions to thrive. The state experiences a moderate amount of rainfall and has suitable soil types for barley cultivation. However, barley production in Australia faces several challenges, including foliar diseases such as net blotch, scald, and barley leaf rust, which can impact yield and quality. Additionally, abiotic stress factors such as water stress, heat stress, and frost events can also affect production.
To optimise barley production in Western Australia, farmers consider the optimal sowing and flowering periods. Spring and winter barley genotypes are typically sown in autumn, growing through the winter and flowering in early spring. The crop matures in late spring or early summer, during a period of increasing heat and water stress. By timing the crop life cycle to minimise growth stresses, farmers can maximise grain yield and quality. Additionally, crop models such as the Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM) can be used to predict flowering time and yield based on genetic parameters, daily temperature, and photoperiod.
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Victoria is a barley-growing region
Victoria is part of the southern region of Australia, which encompasses south-eastern Australia, including Victoria, Tasmania, and South Australia. The south has a diverse suite of soils but generally has low fertility with many subsoil constraints, such as salinity, sodicity, and toxic levels of some elements. The southern region's crop production systems are varied and include many mixed farming enterprises with significant livestock and cropping activities.
Barley is a widely grown and highly adaptable winter cereal crop used mainly for the production of malt for the brewing industry and for stock feed. It is an annual plant that is very versatile in its planting time and is slightly more frost-tolerant than wheat prior to ear emergence and at flowering. It can be planted earlier in the season and is often a better option than wheat for late planting, especially if feed-grain prices are good.
Malting barley is grown, stored, and sold on a variety-specific basis, and it is important to ascertain if the chosen variety can be stored and marketed in a particular area. The Victorian winter crop summary provides an up-to-date guide to barley varieties and the previous season's yield results.
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Frost, drought, and heat are key constraints
Barley is grown widely in Australia, from southern Queensland to Western Australia. It is the country's second-largest grain crop after wheat, accounting for 25% of WA grain production. Western Australia produces barley that is plump and bright with a moderate protein concentration and low grain moisture.
However, frost, drought, and heat are key abiotic constraints to barley production in Australia. To maximise grain yield, the crop's life cycle needs to be timed to minimise growth stresses associated with insufficient radiation, frost, heat, and drought stress during the critical period for yield determination, which occurs prior to and during flowering. This critical period for yield determination is when barley is most vulnerable to stresses that can cause severe yield reductions.
In addition to abiotic constraints, there are several biotic stress factors that affect barley production in Australia. Barley foliar diseases, such as net blotch, scald, and barley leaf rust, are major biotic stress factors attributed to yield and quality losses. Furthermore, more than 80% of arable soils in Australia are affected by multiple soil constraints, such as salinity, sodicity, and acidity, resulting in low water and nutrient use efficiency by crops, leading to sub-optimal yields.
To overcome these challenges, growers employ various management practices, including the use of fungicides, plant growth regulators, and optimal sowing and flowering times. For example, in the low and medium-rainfall zones of the southern and northern regions, crop canopy constraints such as head loss, brackling, and lodging control are addressed through canopy management practices. In contrast, computer simulations suggest that sowing time and nitrogen deficit are the biggest factors leading to a yield gap.
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Foliar diseases are a major biotic stress factor
Barley is Western Australia's second most important crop after wheat, accounting for 25% of WA grain production. It is also grown in other parts of the country, from southern Queensland to Western Australia. Foliar diseases are a major biotic stress factor in barley production. These diseases, such as scald, net blotches (net-type and spot-type), powdery mildew, and leaf rust, can significantly impact yield and grain quality. An integrated management approach is necessary for effective disease control, as over-reliance on any one factor, such as fungicide alone, is not sufficient.
The choice of fungicide is crucial and should be based on the specific target disease, fungicide resistance status, and registered foliar fungicides for cereals in WA. Additionally, crop rotation with non-host crops can help minimise stubble-borne diseases and reduce initial inoculum levels. Paddock selection is also important, as barley stubble from the previous season can contribute to disease pressure. To further reduce this pressure, it is recommended to avoid sowing the current season's crop in paddocks adjoining those with barley stubble.
The application of foliar fungicides aims to delay disease development and maintain the green leaf area, which is crucial for yield. Leaf two (flag-1) and leaf three (flag-2) are the highest priorities for protection in effective disease control. The cost-effectiveness of foliar fungicide applications depends on various factors, including disease severity, susceptibility of the variety, yield potential, grain quality outlook, and the growing environment. For example, in medium to high rainfall areas, the reliance on fungicides is higher due to increased disease pressure and longer growing seasons.
Abiotic factors, such as nutrient deficiencies or adverse weather conditions, can also impact barley leaves and should be considered in disease management. Correct identification of the disease is essential, as different diseases require specific management strategies. Integrated management strategies should consider a combination of practices that address the factors affecting the disease. While fungicides and resistant varieties are commonly used, advancements in genetic mapping of resistance (R) genes and the identification of novel sources of genes in wild barley populations are showing promise for long-term disease management.
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Malting and feed barley are the two categories
Australia is known for its high-quality barley production, which is sought after by the malting, brewing, distilling, and feed industries worldwide. The country accounts for up to 30% of the world's malt barley trade and 20% of the feed barley trade. Barley is grown across Australia, from southern Queensland to Western Australia, with around 4 million hectares of barley planted annually.
Western Australia, in particular, has a significant barley industry, with barley being the state's second most important crop after wheat. It accounts for 25% of WA's grain production and generates over $1 billion in export value annually. The majority of WA's barley is exported, with Saudi Arabia, Japan, Kuwait, Jordan, and Vietnam being the top five export markets in 2021/22.
The barley production in WA can be broadly categorized into two types: malting barley and feed barley. Malting barley is used for brewing and distilling, while feed barley is used for animal feed. The malting process involves allowing the barley grain to germinate, triggering biochemical changes that develop colour and flavour compounds. It results in the production of malt extract, a natural flavouring and colouring agent high in protein and natural sugars.
Malting barley requires specific genetic qualities, including lower protein and beta-glucan amounts, as well as higher enzyme levels, which make it more suitable for brewing. The N (nitrogen) rates for achieving malting-grade protein are typically more conservative than for feed barley, as higher protein levels can impact the malting process. The Boormalt facility in WA is the largest barley malting facility in the southern hemisphere, malted about 250,000 tonnes of barley each year.
Feed barley, on the other hand, is used for animal feed and has different quality standards. It is well-suited for beef cattle, dairy cattle, sheep, pigs, and poultry feed. While all grain is tested and regulated, the maximum allowable excreta content in feed barley is 0.02%, slightly higher than the 0.01% standard for malt-grade barley. Western Australian feed barley is known for its low mycotoxin contamination, good nutrition and energy content, and higher fibre compared to some other feed grains.
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Frequently asked questions
Barley is grown widely in Australia, from southern Queensland to Western Australia. It is grown in Victoria and Western Australia, where it is the second most important crop after wheat.
There are two main types of barley grown in Australia: malting barley and feed barley. Malting barley is used for brewing and malting, while feed barley is used for animal feed.
The main challenges of growing barley in Australia are water stress, heat stress, and frost events. Foliar diseases such as net blotches, scald, and barley leaf rust are also common issues that can affect the yield and quality of the crop.
