Lyla Lindsey
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary and his wife in June 1914 was the catalyst for World War I. Austria-Hungary, with German support, declared war on Serbia, which was backed by Russia. This led to a chain reaction of European powers entering the conflict, including Russia, France, Germany, and Britain. Croatia was part of the multi-ethnic Austro-Hungarian Empire, which conscripted 7.8 million soldiers during the war. While there weren't any significant battles specifically tied to Croatian regiments, the Croatian-Hungarian Settlement ensured that Croatian was the only official language in Croatia and Slavonia, and Croatian troops fought under the Royal Hungarian honvédség. The Austro-Hungarian army faced significant setbacks and defeats, and by the summer of 1918, civil authority in Croatia-Slavonia had disintegrated, with Croatian political leaders focusing on creating Yugoslavia.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Reason for war | Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne |
| Date of war declaration | 28 July 1914 |
| Opponent | Serbia |
| Allies | Germany |
| Opposition Allies | Russia, France, Britain and its empire |
| Number of soldiers conscripted | 7.8 million |
| Number of infantry divisions | 48 |
| Number of cavalry divisions | 11 |
| Number of soldiers in infantry division | 12,000 - 18,000 |
| Number of soldiers in cavalry division | 7,000 - 10,000 |
| Armament | Guns (54 per brigade) |
| Opposition | Czechoslovak Legions |
| Opposition Allies | Italy |
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What You'll Learn
The Austro-Hungarian army's invasion of Serbia in 1914
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife on June 28, 1914, by 19-year-old Bosnian Serb student Gavrilo Princip, set off a chain of events that led to the Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia. Suspecting Serbian backing for the assassination, Austria-Hungary, with German encouragement, presented Serbia with an ultimatum on July 23, 1914, which included demands to suppress anti-Austrian propaganda and allow Austria-Hungary to investigate the archduke's killing. Although Serbia accepted all demands except one, Austria-Hungary broke diplomatic ties on July 25 and declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914, marking the start of World War I.
The invasion of Serbia in 1914 was a disaster for the Austro-Hungarian Army. Despite having a numerical advantage, they were unable to defeat the Serbian forces and suffered heavy casualties. The first invasion began in early August 1914, with the Austro-Hungarian army launching a series of artillery attacks in northern and northwestern Serbia. However, their numbers were far smaller than intended due to the transfer of troops to the Russian Front. On August 15, 1914, the first clashes between Serb and Austro-Hungarian forces occurred over Cer Mountain, escalating into a battle for control of towns and villages near the mountain, including Šabac. The morale of the Austro-Hungarian forces collapsed on August 19, leading to a chaotic retreat, with many soldiers drowning in the Drina River. The first invasion ended on August 24, 1914, with a major defeat for the Austro-Hungarians at the Battle of Cer.
Undeterred by their initial failure, the Austro-Hungarians launched a second invasion on September 8, 1914, with a twin-pronged night attack across the Drina River. This time, they engaged all their forces, and the well-equipped Habsburg forces outnumbered the Serbs, who were short on munitions. Despite this, the Austro-Hungarians faced fierce resistance, and their Fifth Army was pushed back into Bosnia while their Sixth Army's offensive was halted by a strong Serbian counterattack.
On November 5, 1914, the Austro-Hungarians launched a third offensive, exploiting their superiority in artillery to capture Valjevo and, later, Belgrade, forcing the Royal Serbian Army to retreat. The Austro-Hungarian army occupied Serbia from late 1915 until the end of World War I, with the help of German and Bulgarian forces. The Croatian-ethnicity Feldmarschall Stjepan Sarkotić, who commanded the 42nd Home Guard Infantry Division during the first invasion, was appointed governor-general of Serbia by Emperor Franz Joseph on November 24, 1914.
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The Battle of Zborov (1917)
The Battle of Zborov, fought in July 1917, was a small but significant engagement during World War I, marking the first major action of the Czechoslovak Legions. These legions, comprised of Czech and Slovak volunteers, fought against the Central Powers, including the army of Austria-Hungary, which was part of the larger multi-national constitutional monarchy known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
The battle took place near the town of Zborov, located in present-day Ukraine. The Czechoslovak forces, known as the "Czechoslovak Riflemen Brigade," numbered around 3,500 men and were relatively ill-equipped and undertrained. Despite this, they launched a surprise attack on the Austrian-Hungarian positions, which were defended by four well-entrenched and well-equipped infantry regiments totalling about 12,000 men.
The Czechoslovak Legionnaires initiated the assault on July 2 with an artillery bombardment, followed by small groups of grenadiers breaching the enemy's barbed wire defences. The shock troops of the Czechoslovak forces played a crucial role in breaking through the barbed wire, allowing follow-up units to continue the attack and advance deep into Austrian-Hungarian territory. By the end of the day, the Czechoslovak forces had captured 3,300 enemy soldiers, including 62 officers, and seized 20 guns and significant amounts of war material.
The Battle of Zborov was a surprising victory for the Czechoslovak forces, and while it did not have a strategic impact on the overall offensive, it held immense political and propaganda value. It inspired nationalist sentiments and encouraged the formation of new Czechoslovak military units, ultimately contributing to the creation of an independent Czechoslovakia after the war.
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Italy's attack on Austria-Hungary in 1915
The Italian campaign, known as the Italian Front, aimed to annex the Austrian Littoral, northern Dalmatia, and territories in present-day Trentino and South Tyrol. Italy sought to fulfil its long-held nationalist aspirations by gaining control of these border regions. However, Italy's military was ill-prepared for large-scale warfare, despite mustered an army of 1.2 million men. Poor leadership, training, and organisation further hindered their efforts.
The First Battle of the Isonzo, beginning on 23 June 1915, marked the start of a bloody and exhausting series of engagements. The Italians, led by Chief of Staff Luigi Cadorna, sought to cross the Isonzo River and advance towards Ljubljana, ultimately threatening Vienna. However, they were halted by the Austro-Hungarian defensive lines in the highlands, with the Austrians occupying the higher ground. Four battles were fought along the Isonzo River over five months, resulting in heavy casualties and little progress for either side.
The Italians launched subsequent offensives, including the Second, Third, and Fourth Battles of the Isonzo, but were met with stiff resistance and strong defensive positions. The Austro-Hungarian forces, though outnumbered, held their ground, and the front devolved into trench warfare similar to that on the Western Front but at high altitudes with extremely cold winters. The fighting displaced thousands of civilians, leading to deaths from malnutrition and illness in refugee camps.
By late 1917, the Italians and Austrians had fought 11 battles along the Isonzo River, with heavy losses and little strategic advantage for either side. German intervention resulted in a significant victory for the Central Powers in the Battle of Caporetto, causing a crisis in Italy and leading to the dismissal of Cadorna. The Italian Front concluded in 1918 with an Italian victory, capturing Trento and Trieste, but at a devastating cost, with 615,000 Italians killed in action or died of wounds.
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The Brusilov Offensive in June 1916
The Brusilov Offensive, which took place from June 4 to September 20, 1916, was the largest Russian assault during World War I and one of the deadliest in history. It was also considered one of the most successful ground operations of the war. The offensive was named after General Aleksey Brusilov, the commander of the Southwestern Front of the Imperial Russian Army. Brusilov was known for his meticulous preparation and attention to detail, earning the nickname "The Iron General" from his troops, who respected and admired him.
The offensive began with a massive attack on the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army at Lutsk (now in Ukraine) on June 4, 1916, utilising nearly 2,000 guns along a 200-mile-long front. Despite being outnumbered by the Austrian troops, led by Archduke Joseph Ferdinand, the Russians' effective bombardment obliterated the Austrian front line, allowing them to sweep forward and take 26,000 prisoners in a single day. This marked the start of a series of crushing victories against the Austrian army across the southwestern portion of the Eastern Front.
The Brusilov Offensive had far-reaching consequences. It relieved pressure on the French forces at Verdun and eased the Austro-Hungarian pressure on the Italians. The offensive inflicted irreparable losses on the Austro-Hungarian Army, causing them to lose approximately 1.5 million men (including 400,000 prisoners of war) and 25,000 square kilometres of territory. It also induced Romania to enter the war on the side of the Entente. However, the Russians also suffered significant casualties, with around 500,000 men lost from May 28 to July 13, 1916, contributing to the onset of the Russian Revolution in 1917.
While the Brusilov Offensive was a remarkable military achievement, it could not prevent the eventual disintegration of the Russian army and their exit from the war. By 1917, turmoil and revolution had shattered Russia, and the Petrograd conference was held to discuss the post-war structure of the world. The Austro-Hungarian Empire, meanwhile, suffered a blow from which it never fully recovered.
As for the Croatian Austria-Hungarians, they fought in various battles during World War I, but specific details of their involvement in the Brusilov Offensive are scarce. However, it is known that Croatia was a part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and by the summer of 1918, "Green Cadres" of army deserters, including Croatians, formed armed bands in the hills of Croatia-Slavonia, leading to a breakdown of civil authority. The Croatian political leadership, however, focused on creating a new state, Yugoslavia, and collaborated with the advancing Serbian army to quell the uprisings.
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The formation of peasant republics in Croatia-Slavonia
The Kingdom of Croatia–Slavonia was a nominally autonomous kingdom and constitutionally defined separate political nation within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It was created in 1868 by merging the kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia following the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement of 1868. The kingdom existed until 1918 when it joined the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, which together with the Kingdom of Serbia formed the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Serbs, later known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.
The Croatian Peasant Party (Croatian: Hrvatska seljačka stranka, HSS) is an agrarian political party in Croatia founded on 22 December 1904 by Antun and Stjepan Radić as the Croatian Peoples' Peasant Party (HPSS). The Radić brothers believed that the realization of Croatian statehood was possible within Austria-Hungary, but that it had to be reformed as a monarchy divided into three equal parts – Austria, Hungary, and Croatia. After the creation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1918, the Party requested that the Croatian part of the Kingdom be based on self-determination. This brought them great public support, which culminated in the 1920 parliamentary election when the HPSS won all 58 seats assigned to Croatia. In 1920, unhappy with the poor position of Croats in the Kingdom, the party changed its name to the Croatian Republican Peasant Party (HRSS) and began advocating for secession from the Kingdom and the establishment of a "peaceful peasant Republic of Croatia".
In the last days of World War I, the Croatian parliament abolished the Hungarian–Croatian personal union, and both parts of the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia and the Kingdom of Dalmatia became part of the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs. The Croatian Peasant Party's platform of antimilitarism and pacifism became very popular in the final year of the war, especially in Croatia-Slavonia, which was affected by widespread unrest associated with the Green Cadres. The restricted voting rights were expanded after 1918 by the introduction of universal manhood suffrage, allowing the proportionally large peasant population (80% of Croatia-Slavonia at the time) to predominantly vote for the HPSS.
By the summer of 1918, "Green Cadres" of army deserters formed armed bands in the hills of Croatia-Slavonia, and civil authority disintegrated. By late October, violence and massive looting erupted, and there were efforts to form peasant republics. However, the Croatian political leadership was focused on creating a new state (Yugoslavia) and worked with the advancing Serbian army to impose control and end the uprisings.
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Frequently asked questions
Croatian Austria-Hungarians fought in several theatres of war during WWI, including the following:
- The Brusilov Offensive in June 1916
- The Romanian invasion of Transylvania
- The Battle of Zborov (1917)
- The Battle of Caporetto
- The Gallipoli campaign
- The Sinai Peninsula and Palestine
- The Italian Front
The Brusilov Offensive was a large-scale military campaign fought between the Russian Empire and the Central Powers (including Austria-Hungary). It took place on the Eastern Front in 1916 and resulted in heavy casualties for both sides.
The Romanian army invaded Transylvania, which was part of the Kingdom of Hungary, in 1916. The invasion was repelled by Hungarian troops.
The Battle of Zborov was fought in 1917 and was the first significant action of the Czechoslovak Legions, who fought for the independence of Czechoslovakia against the Austro-Hungarian army.
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