Austria-Hungary's World War I: Who Won?

Austria-Hungary's involvement in World War I began with its declaration of war on Serbia on July 28, 1914, one month after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. As a central power, Austria-Hungary became a military satellite of Germany, and its performance in the war was largely unsuccessful, with only one major battle victory. The country's collapse was marked by the rise of nationalist movements, the failure to negotiate peace, and the eventual signing of armistice with the Allies on November 4, 1918.

Austria-Hungary's poor performance

Firstly, the country suffered several setbacks in the early years of the war, from 1914 to 1915. This was largely due to its position as a military satellite of Germany, which dictated much of its strategy. For example, Austria-Hungary had to abandon its plans to conquer Serbia and instead protect the German invasion of France, despite having little influence over German decision-making. The Austrian high command was also incompetent, as evidenced by its lack of preparation for an offensive war, which the Chief of Staff, Conrad, had been advocating for since 1906.

Secondly, Austria-Hungary faced internal political challenges that weakened its war effort. The country was a divided empire, with discontent among its non-German population, particularly the Czechs, who openly showed their animosity towards the war. The German Austrians, meanwhile, had little influence, and the Hungarian Prime Minister, Tisza, who controlled the food supply, held significant power. The assassination of the Austrian Prime Minister, Stürgkh, in 1916 by the pacifist son of the leader of Austrian socialism highlighted the underlying discontent within the empire.

Additionally, Austria-Hungary's inability to prevent Italy from joining the war on the side of the Allied Powers in 1915 further demonstrated the incompetence of its leadership. Despite German attempts to prevent Italy's entry through concessions, Austria-Hungary's refusal to cede any territory in response to irredentist demands failed to keep Italy from joining the war.

Finally, the rise of nationalist movements within the empire, such as the Czechs demanding outright independence in 1918, further contributed to the collapse of the Habsburg monarchy.

In summary, Austria-Hungary's poor performance in World War One was characterised by military setbacks, incompetent leadership, internal political divisions, and the rise of nationalist movements, ultimately leading to its defeat and the loss of territories.

Italy's role in the war

When World War I began in July 1914, Italy was a partner in the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, but it decided to remain neutral. However, there was a strong sentiment among the general population and political factions to go to war against Austria-Hungary, Italy's historical enemy. Italy's primary goal was to annex territory along the frontier shared by the two countries, which stretched from the Trentino region in the Alps eastward to Trieste at the northern end of the Adriatic Sea. This would "liberate" Italian-speaking populations from the Austro-Hungarian Empire and unite them with their cultural homeland.

During the years leading up to the war, Italy had strengthened its diplomatic ties with the United Kingdom and France. This was because the Italian government believed that supporting Austria, Italy's traditional enemy during the 19th-century Risorgimento, would not help Italy gain the territories it desired: Trieste, Istria, Zara, and Dalmatia, which were all Austrian possessions. In fact, a secret agreement signed with France in 1902 directly conflicted with Italy's membership in the Triple Alliance.

In the early days of the war, on August 3, 1914, the conservative Italian government led by Antonio Salandra declared that Italy would not commit its troops, maintaining that the Triple Alliance was solely defensive in nature and that Austria-Hungary had been the aggressor. Thereafter, Salandra and the minister of Foreign Affairs, Sidney Sonnino, began negotiating with both sides, aiming to secure the best rewards for Italy's entrance into the war or its neutrality. Although the majority of the cabinet, including former Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti, firmly opposed intervention, numerous intellectuals, including Socialists such as Ivanoe Bonomi, Leonida Bissolati, and, after October 18, 1914, Benito Mussolini, declared their support for intervention. The Nationalist and Liberal parties largely backed this stance. Pro-interventionist socialists believed that once weapons were distributed to the people, they could transform the war into a revolution.

Negotiations with the Central Powers to maintain Italian neutrality ultimately failed. After the war, Italy was to receive Trentino but not South Tyrol, part of the Austrian Littoral but not Trieste, and possibly Tunisia, but only after the war's end. Italy wanted these territories immediately. On the other hand, negotiations with the Allies led to the London Pact of April 26, 1915, signed by Sonnino without the approval of the Italian Parliament. According to the Pact, Italy would receive Trentino and South Tyrol up to the Brenner Pass, the entire Austrian Littoral (including Trieste), Gorizia and Gradisca (Eastern Friuli), Istria (excluding Fiume), parts of western Carniola (Idrija and Ilirska Bistrica), and northwestern Dalmatia with Zara and most of the islands, but without Split. Other agreements concerned the sovereignty of the port of Valona, the province of Antalya in Turkey, and parts of the German colonies in Africa.

On May 3, 1915, Italy officially revoked the Triple Alliance. In the following days, Giolitti and the neutralist majority in Parliament opposed declaring war, while nationalist crowds demonstrated in public areas in favour of it. The nationalist poet Gabriele D'Annunzio referred to this period as "the sunny days of May". Giolitti had the support of the majority of the Italian parliament, so on May 13, Salandra offered his resignation to King Victor Emmanuel III. However, Giolitti learned that the London Pact had already been signed, and fearful of a conflict between the Crown and Parliament and the potential consequences for internal stability and foreign relations, he accepted the situation, declined to succeed as prime minister, and Salandra's resignation was not accepted.

On May 23, 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. This was followed by declarations of war on the Ottoman Empire on August 21, 1915, Bulgaria on October 19, 1915, and the German Empire on August 28, 1916. Italy entered World War I with the aim of completing national unity by annexing Trentino-Alto Adige and Julian March. For this reason, the Italian intervention in World War I is considered the Fourth Italian War of Independence.

The Italian Front stretched from the Stelvio Pass along the border triangle between Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Switzerland, to the Isonzo River. Its total length was around 650 kilometres, with 400 kilometres running through high alpine terrain. The front touched very different geographical areas, from mountainous territory in the north to the sparsely populated and harsh climate of the lower-lying zones near Gorizia. The rocky ground and karst landscape made it difficult to dig trenches and posed additional dangers to soldiers due to the shrapnel created by exploding grenades.

Italy ordered general mobilisation on May 22, 1915, and by the end of June, four armies had marched into the northeastern border area. The Italian plan of attack included encircling the Tyrolean front from the west and south and positioning forces in Cadore, Carnia, and against the 5th Austro-Hungarian Army in the Julian Alps and on the Isonzo. Although the Italian armed forces were numerically superior, the southwestern front remained surprisingly quiet, with no major offensives. The chance for a quick breakthrough was lost due to the slow mobilisation of the Italian army and inadequate transport infrastructure. Additionally, the Italian army suffered from equipment and munition shortages, which hindered their progress and frustrated expectations for a "Napoleonic-style" breakout.

The Italians launched their first offensive on May 24, 1915, capturing Cervignano del Friuli. The First Battle of the Isonzo began on June 23, 1915, but Italian forces failed to penetrate the strong Austro-Hungarian defensive lines in the highlands of northwestern Gorizia and Gradisca. The Italian forces faced the challenge of conducting difficult offensives while climbing and were unable to drive much beyond the river. The battle ended on July 7, 1915.

The Italians launched several more offensives in 1915, including the Second Battle of the Isonzo in July, the Third Battle of the Isonzo in October, and the Fourth Battle of the Isonzo in November. Despite some strategic gains, these offensives resulted in heavy casualties and stalemates. The stalemate continued into 1916, with the Fifth Battle of the Isonzo in March yielding no significant progress.

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The collapse of Austria-Hungary