Leslie Massey
Cannibalism in Australia was mostly confined to a minority of Aboriginal groups and was associated with mortuary rites or as a last resort in times of hardship and starvation. While it was not banned explicitly, the arrival of Europeans in Australia in 1770 led to the demonization of Aboriginal people and their rituals, with acts of cannibalism being exaggerated or misinterpreted to justify the expropriation of their land and the destruction of their culture. Cannibalism was used as a powerful trope to portray the indigenous people as less than human and justify the great land theft.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Cannibalism in Aboriginal society | Practised by a minority of Aboriginal groups |
| Regions | North coast, central Australia, Queensland, Victoria, New South Wales, South-eastern Australia |
| Reasons | Mortuary rites, hardship, war, ritual |
| Cannibalism of infants | Infants were killed and eaten by their mothers and fed to older siblings |
| Cannibalism of people outside the social group | Practised |
| Cannibalism of adults | Rare, but some reports exist |
| Evidence of cannibalism | Limited and questionable |
| Purpose of cannibalism allegations | Demonizing Aboriginal people, justifying land expropriation and cultural destruction |
| Primary sources | Third-hand accounts, no eyewitnesses |
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What You'll Learn
Cannibalism in Oceania
In Australia, allegations of cannibalism among Aboriginal groups were often used as a means to demonize and dehumanize them, justifying the expropriation of their land and the destruction of their culture. However, some scholars argue that cannibalism was practiced by a minority of Aboriginal groups, primarily in the form of funerary cannibalism or endocannibalism, where close kin would consume specific parts of the dead as a means of perpetuating their existence and attributes.
There are also reports of cannibalism associated with infanticide, where infants were killed and eaten during bad seasons or as a means of population control. In times of famine, older children might also be killed, but their flesh was not consumed. While some authors have exaggerated the prevalence of cannibalism after infanticide, others argue that it was underestimated.
In parts of Melanesia and Polynesia, cannibalism was associated with war, with victors consuming the vanquished. Cannibalism was also practiced in New Guinea, where the Urapmin people engaged in it during wartime, and in parts of the Solomon Islands. In the early 20th century, cannibalism was still practiced in some regions of Melanesia for various reasons, including retaliation and insult.
While there are no specific dates mentioned regarding the banning of cannibalism for Aboriginal Australians, it is important to note that the practice was likely limited to specific regions and cultural groups.
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Aboriginal groups and mortuary rites
The mortuary rites and funeral traditions of Aboriginal groups in Australia, sometimes referred to as 'sorry business', vary widely between different communities and territories. These traditions are incredibly varied and unique to each group, but one universal aspect is the support and unified grief of the whole community as they come together to pay tribute to those who have died.
The ceremonies surrounding death are extremely important to Aboriginal peoples and take precedence over all other activities. Funeral and mourning rituals are a communal activity in Aboriginal culture. Families, friends, and members of the larger community come together to grieve and support each other. Ceremonies can last for days and even weeks, and children may be taken out of school to participate.
Some traditional practices include the smoking ceremony, a spiritual ritual conducted in the deceased's living space to drive their spirit away; painting all living spaces inhabited by the deceased with ochre or, alternatively, putting up "flags" to drive away the deceased's spirit and notify the community of the death; and the death ceremony, which includes practices such as keeping the deceased's body in the home, painting the bodies of the mourners, and bringing kinship communities together to share food, song, and dance.
Traditionally, some Aboriginal groups buried their loved ones in two stages. First, they would leave them on an elevated platform outside for several months. Then, once only the bones were left, they would paint them with red ochre. The painted bones could then be buried, placed in a significant location in the natural landscape, or carried with the family as a token of remembrance. In modern Australia, people with Aboriginal heritage usually have a standard burial or cremation, combined with elements of Aboriginal culture and ceremonies.
Within some Aboriginal groups, there is a strong tradition of not speaking the name of a dead person, as it is believed that doing so will disturb their spirit. They may use a substitute name to refer to the deceased without using their name. Photographs or depictions of a person who has died may also be seen as a disturbance to their spirit, which is why some Aboriginal families do not keep photographs of their loved ones after they die.
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Cannibalism allegations and demonization
Cannibalism in Australia was largely confined to a minority of Aboriginal groups and was mostly associated with mortuary rites or as a last resort to avoid starvation. While some scholars argue that cannibalism was practised by Aboriginal Australians, it was limited to certain regions such as the north-east coast of Queensland, Arnhem Land, and parts of Victoria.
However, allegations of cannibalism among the Aborigines have been disputed by several anthropologists and archaeologists. Since the 1980s, scholars have become increasingly critical of 19th- and early 20th-century accounts of cannibalism among the Aborigines. Anthropologist Michael Pickering surveyed the ethnographic literature in 1985 and found that 72% of accounts were unsourced or second-hand, with no reliable eyewitness accounts of actual acts of cannibalism. He argues that language barriers and the belief of traditional Aboriginal groups in the existence of sorcerers and spirits who eat human flesh may have led European observers to misinterpret symbolic stories as evidence of real acts of cannibalism.
Furthermore, Pickering, along with other scholars like Howie-Willis and Behrendt, contends that allegations of cannibalism were used as a tool to demonize the Aboriginal people, thereby justifying the expropriation of their land, the denial of their legal rights, and the destruction of their culture. They argue that accounts of Aboriginal cannibalism are "sketchy at best", and that the most well-documented cases of cannibalism in colonial Australia were perpetrated by European convicts such as Alexander Pearce, Edward Broughton, and Matthew Maccavoy.
While it is generally accepted that some Aboriginal groups did practise cannibalism, it was not widespread and was often limited to specific rituals or extreme circumstances. It is important to note that allegations of cannibalism were often used to paint the Aboriginal people in a negative light, serving colonial interests and contributing to the marginalization of their culture.
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Cannibalism in colonial Australia
However, there are reports and accounts of cannibalism among certain Aboriginal groups in colonial Australia. For example, the practice of funerary cannibalism or endocannibalism, where members of the same Aboriginal group consume parts of the body of a deceased person, has been attested to by anthropologists Ronald Berndt and Catherine Berndt. They suggest that burial cannibalism was fairly widespread, although it varied in terms of which body parts were consumed. Cannibalism was also associated with infanticide, particularly during challenging seasons in the desert or as a means of population control. In these cases, infants were sometimes eaten by their mothers or fed to older siblings to provide them with strength.
The Kurnai and Ngarigo of south-eastern Australia were reported to consume human flesh, but only when it came to their enemies. This practice was also observed in parts of Melanesia, where cannibalism was practised for various reasons, including retaliation and as an insult to an enemy group. In contrast, the belief in cannibalism among all natives of the north coast, except for a small tribe near Port Essington, was recorded. It was claimed that children up to two years old were considered suitable for consumption and that parents would eat their own children. However, the consumption of adults was rare, and one instance involving two Europeans in 1874 was noted.
While there are reports and accounts of cannibalism among certain Aboriginal groups, the accuracy and reliability of these sources have been questioned. Anthropologist Michael Pickering, in his 1985 survey of ethnographic literature, found that 72% of accounts were unsourced or second-hand, and there was a lack of reliable eyewitness testimony. Pickering and other scholars argue that language barriers and cultural misunderstandings may have led to the misinterpretation of symbolic stories and metaphorical language as evidence of actual cannibalistic practices.
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Cannibalism as a cultural taboo
Cannibalism has been a topic of fascination and disgust for centuries, with various cultural and historical contexts influencing its perception. While it is considered taboo in many societies, the reasons for this stigma vary. In modern history, the rise of mainstream religions labelled cannibalism as barbarous, contributing to its decline. Additionally, the accusation of cannibalism has been used to justify colonial exploitation and the subjugation of non-European peoples, particularly during the colonialist epoch.
The practice of cannibalism among Aboriginal Australians has been a subject of debate, with scholars arguing that it was largely limited to specific regions and associated with mortuary rites or hardship. Some reports indicate that certain Aboriginal groups practised infanticide and cannibalism as a means of population control during droughts and famines. However, archaeologist Josephine Flood suggests that "Aborigines generally abhorred cannibalism," and that stories of cannibalism were often used to demonize rival groups.
The taboo surrounding cannibalism may have evolved from a practical perspective, as humans are a dangerous source of food that can fight back. Additionally, it is maladaptive to consume members of one's own species, and such behaviour could lead to social isolation. This is supported by the observation that fewer species engage in cannibalism as one moves through the animal kingdom towards primates.
The notion of a universal taboo against cannibalism has been criticized as ethnocentric, as it imposes a modern Western notion on other cultures. For example, in parts of the Congo region, cannibalism was appreciated, and the hysterical reactions of Westerners were not understood. Similarly, Hubert Murray, the Lieutenant-Governor of Papua in the early 20th century, struggled to explain why cannibalism was taboo when confronted by natives who questioned the aversion to consuming human flesh.
Despite the risks and the taboo, certain forms of cannibalism, such as placentophagy, are experiencing a resurgence, endorsed by celebrities and natural-birth advocates.
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Frequently asked questions
There is no evidence to suggest that cannibalism was ever banned for Aboriginal Australians. However, it is important to note that the practice was likely rare and confined to a minority of groups, associated with mortuary rites or as a last resort to avoid starvation.
There is limited evidence to support allegations of widespread cannibalism among Aboriginal Australians. Some scholars argue that acts of cannibalism were ritualistic rather than gustatory, and that European observers misinterpreted symbolic stories and practices.
Europeans often portrayed Aboriginal Australians as cannibals to justify the invasion and expropriation of their land, portraying them as less than human and demonizing their culture.
