Leslie Massey
The Anschluss, which took place in March 1938, was Nazi Germany's annexation of Austria and the regime's first act of territorial aggression and expansion. The German annexation of Austria was the result of a long-held desire by many Germans and Austrians for the unification of all Germans into one state. The idea of Austria joining Germany grew in popularity after Hitler came to power, and Austrian Nazis pushed for unification from Germany following a failed coup in 1934. On March 12, 1938, Germany invaded Austria, and Hitler announced the annexation of Austria into the German Reich on March 13. A referendum held on April 10, 1938, asking Austrians to vote on the reunification showed a 99.7% approval rate.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of Anschluss | 13 March 1938 |
| Date of referendum | 10 April 1938 |
| Result of referendum | 99.7% in favour |
| German leader | Adolf Hitler |
| Austrian Nazi leader | Arthur Seyss-Inquart |
| Austrian chancellor | Kurt von Schuschnigg |
| Austrian president | Wilhelm Miklas |
| German minister | Hermann Göring |
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What You'll Learn
The Austrian Nazi Party's rise in popularity
The rise of the Austrian Nazi Party in the early 20th century was fuelled by a combination of factors, including historical context, political instability, and effective propaganda.
Between World War I and World War II, Austria was a relatively new country with a population of around 6.5 million. Many Austrians identified as ethnically German, and the idea of unification with Germany ("Anschluss") had strong support, particularly among those on the political left and centre. This desire for unification was driven by the belief that Austria, having lost its imperial lands, was not economically viable on its own. The Austrian Nazi Party, however, struggled to gain traction in the late 1920s and early 1930s due to internal divisions and disorganisation.
The turning point for the Austrian Nazi Party came in 1931 when the majority of its members recognised Hitler as their leader. Hitler's growing popularity in Germany, culminating in his appointment as German chancellor in January 1933, boosted the fortunes of his Austrian counterparts. The Austrian Nazis gained supporters, and their propaganda campaigns, with slogans like "Ein Volk, ein Reich, ein Führer" ("One People, One Empire, One Leader"), effectively tapped into the desire for unification.
In June 1933, the Austrian Nazi Party was banned by the Dollfuss regime following a fatal Nazi bombing. Despite this, the party continued to operate clandestinely, and many members fled to Germany, forming the paramilitary Austrian Legion. The Austrian Nazis attempted a coup in July 1934 but failed, resulting in the assassination of Chancellor Dollfuss. The subsequent right-wing authoritarian government suppressed dissent, hindering resistance to the growing Nazi influence.
By 1938, the stage was set for the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany, known as the "Anschluss". This marked the first act of territorial expansion by the Nazi regime and transformed Austria overnight. Austrian civil servants, soldiers, and police officers publicly pledged allegiance to Hitler, and Nazi ideas and policies were rapidly implemented across Austrian society. The international community's failure to intervene or condemn the annexation set a precedent of appeasement towards Hitler's aggressive foreign policy.
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The annexation of Austria
The unification of Austria and Germany had been a long-held desire of many Germans and Austrians, who considered themselves ethnically German. In 1938, the idea of Anschluss was propagated by the Nazis through a propaganda campaign that used slogans such as "One People, One Empire, One Leader" to convince Austrians to advocate for unification with the German Reich.
In February 1938, Hitler invited the Austrian chancellor, Kurt von Schuschnigg, to Germany and forced him to agree to give the Austrian Nazis a free hand in his cabinet. On March 11, 1938, von Schuschnigg became aware of Hitler's plans to invade Austria and cancelled a planned plebiscite to avoid bloodshed. Hitler responded by demanding that the Austrian president, Wilhelm Miklas, appoint a member of the Austrian Nazi Party as the nation's next chancellor. When Miklas refused, Hitler ordered the invasion to begin at dawn on March 12.
Hitler's journey through Austria following the invasion became a triumphal tour, culminating in Vienna on March 15, 1938, when around 200,000 German Austrians gathered to hear him speak. On April 10, 1938, a referendum was held in Austria, asking if the population agreed with the reunification with the German Reich. The referendum resulted in a 99.7% approval, although the high percentage was likely due to the vote not being anonymous, and opponents not daring to vote against.
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The international community's response
The Anschluss, which took place in March 1938, was the first act of territorial aggression and expansion by the Nazi regime. It was a significant event that drew international condemnation and heightened diplomatic tensions across Europe. The international community's response was swift and largely negative, as it violated the principles of the Treaty of Versailles and the newly established League of Nations.
The annexation sparked outrage among European powers, particularly Britain and France, who had already been concerned about the aggressive expansionist policies of the Nazi regime. The British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, spoke about the "Austrian situation" in the House of Commons, noting that the British ambassador in Berlin objected to the use of "coercion, backed by force" that undermined Austria's independence. The Times also commented that 300 years prior, Scotland had joined England, and that this event would not differ much.
The annexation of Austria caused an international outcry and was widely condemned. The League of Nations, a precursor to the United Nations, passed a resolution rejecting the Anschluss and demanding the withdrawal of German troops. However, the international community did not intervene to try and stop the Anschluss, nor did they punish Nazi Germany for violating international treaties. Thus, the Anschluss is seen as one of the earliest and most significant examples of the appeasement of Hitler's aggressive foreign policy.
The German annexation of Austria marked a significant breach of the post-World War I international order. Just six months later, Nazi Germany manufactured a crisis in the Sudetenland, a region of Czechoslovakia. In September 1938, world leaders from Italy, France, and Great Britain met with Hitler in Munich to discuss the issue. They appeased Hitler by ceding the region to Nazi Germany on the condition that the rest of Czechoslovakia remained off-limits. This agreement was broken in March 1939 when Nazi Germany occupied the Czech lands, including Prague.
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The Austrian referendum
The Anschluss, or the unification of Austria and Germany, was the first act of territorial aggression and expansion by Nazi Germany. It was achieved through annexation by Adolf Hitler in 1938. The idea of unification was not new, as it had been a subject of debate since the 19th century. In the early 1930s, the Austrian government considered a customs union with Germany, and the Austrian pan-Germans supported the unification. However, regional patriotism prevailed, and the idea of unification was not popular among the majority of Austrians in 1919.
In 1938, under pressure from pro-unification activists, Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg announced a referendum on a possible union with Germany or maintaining Austria's sovereignty, scheduled for March 13, 1938. Hitler opposed this, threatening an invasion and forcing Schuschnigg to resign. On March 12, 1938, German troops invaded Austria, and the next day, Hitler annexed Austria.
Despite the invasion and occupation, a referendum was held on April 10, 1938, in both Austria and Germany. This referendum was not free or fair, as it was subjected to large-scale Nazi propaganda, and the voting rights of approximately 360,000 people, mainly political opponents and Austrian citizens of Jewish or Romani origin, were revoked. The ballot itself was designed to influence a "yes" vote, with a large circle for "yes" and a small one for "no". Additionally, the secrecy of the ballot was compromised, as many voters filled out their ballots in front of campaign workers. The official result of the referendum was 99.7% approval for the annexation, and Austria was integrated into several administrative divisions of Nazi Germany.
The referendum was not a true reflection of Austrian public opinion, as various sources indicate that a fair plebiscite would have resulted in only 20% support for the Anschluss. According to Gestapo reports, support for the unification was lower in Vienna and rural areas, especially Tyrol. The Austrian government estimated that with a voting age of 24, about 70% of Austrians would have voted to preserve their independence.
The international community did not intervene to stop the Anschluss or punish Nazi Germany for violating international treaties. The British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, acknowledged the "Austrian situation" in a speech, but ultimately, the international response was one of appeasement.
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The persecution of Jews
The annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in 1938, known as the Anschluss, was the first act of territorial aggression and expansion by the Nazi regime. It was also one of the earliest and most significant examples of the international community's appeasement of Hitler's aggressive foreign policy. The persecution of Jews in Germany and Austria gained momentum after the Anschluss, with several incidents of violence and discrimination.
Before the Anschluss, there was a significant Jewish population in Germany, and the country had a long history of anti-Jewish sentiment, including accusations of well-poisoning and ritual murder in the centuries following the Crusades. In the 1920s, Germany experienced severe economic hardships, and the eyes of the angry populace turned towards the Jews. The Nazi regime further marginalised the Jewish community by introducing the Nuremberg Laws in 1935, which banned Jews from marrying non-Jews and removed their citizenship and right to vote.
After the annexation of Austria, Austrian civil servants, soldiers, and police officers publicly took an oath to Adolf Hitler, and various organisations and institutions adopted Nazi ideas and policies, leading to the expulsion of Jewish members and the firing of Jewish employees. Austrians forced Jewish men and women to scrub the streets with small brushes and, in some cases, with their fur coats. Jewish businesses in Frankfurt, Germany, were boycotted, and a concentration camp was established at Flossenbürg, Germany, where the anti-Nazi journalist Carl von Ossietzky was imprisoned and died.
On November 9, 1938, the Nazis initiated pogroms (organised attacks) against the Jews in all Nazi territories. This night of violence, known as Kristallnacht, marked a significant escalation in the persecution of Jews, with 91 Jews murdered, 30,000 arrested and sent to concentration camps, and 267 synagogues destroyed. Many have described Kristallnacht as 'the beginning of the Holocaust'.
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Frequently asked questions
Germany and Austria joined in the Anschluss in March 1938.
The word "Anschluss" is translated from German as "joinder", "connection", "unification", or "political union".
The international community did not intervene to stop the Anschluss or punish Nazi Germany for violating international treaties. This was one of the earliest and most significant examples of the appeasement of Hitler's aggressive foreign policy.
The Austrian Nazi Party failed to win any seats in the November 1930 general election but grew in popularity after Hitler came to power. The idea of Austria joining Germany also gained support, and Hitler himself pushed for it in the mid-1930s. On March 12, 1938, Germany invaded Austria, and Hitler annexed the country on March 13. A referendum was held on April 10, with 99.7% of Austrians voting in favour of the union.
The Anschluss had devastating consequences for Jews in Austria. Immediately after the referendum, Nazis visited Jews at their homes, robbed them, and destroyed their property. Jews were forced to scrub pro-Austrian slogans off the streets of Vienna. Many Jews attempted to flee the country, while others committed suicide. The Nuremberg Laws, adopted in May 1938, imposed severe restrictions on Jews, and on Kristallnacht in November 1938, synagogues were destroyed, Jewish shops were plundered, and thousands of Jews were arrested.
