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Austria and Italy have a long history of conflict, with several instances of invasions and attempted invasions by both sides. One notable example is the Second Italian War of Independence, which took place in 1859 and resulted in Austria invading Sardinia. This war was part of Sardinia's efforts, supported by France, to expel Austria from Italy. Another instance is the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866, where Italy and Austria fought over the region of Venetia, which was eventually conceded to France and then annexed by Italy. Additionally, during World War I, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary in 1915, leading to intense battles along their shared border. Earlier, in the context of rising Nazi power, Austria and Italy found themselves at odds once again. While Italian dictator Benito Mussolini supported Austrian sovereignty, Hitler's regime demanded the annexation of Austria, leading to tensions and an attempted coup in 1934. Ultimately, in 1938, Germany carried out the annexation of Austria, marking its first act of territorial aggression and expansion.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of Austrian Invasion of Italy | 29 April 1859 |
| Reason for Invasion | Austria issued an ultimatum to Sardinia demanding demobilization, which was refused |
| Outcome | Austria was defeated at the Battle of Magenta on 4 June and pushed back to Lombardy |
| Result | Armistice of Villafranca signed on 12 July |
| Territory Involved | Lombardy, Venetia, Friuli, Mantua, Romagna, Trentino |
| Combatants | Austria, Sardinia, France, Prussia, Italy |
| Related Events | First Italian War of Independence, Crimean War, Unification of Italy, Nazi Annexation of Austria |
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What You'll Learn
Italy's declaration of war on Austria-Hungary in 1915
In the years leading up to World War I, Italy had formed the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882. However, when World War I broke out in 1914, Italy declared itself neutral, citing that the treaty did not oblige it to provide military assistance. Italy's decision to remain neutral was influenced by its own strategic calculations and national interests.
As the war progressed, Italy carefully weighed its options, considering how it could benefit the most from its participation. Italy's entry into the war was influenced by the promises made by the Allies in the Treaty of London, signed in April 1915. According to the treaty, Italy was assured territorial gains at the expense of Austria-Hungary, fulfilling its long-standing irredentist demands. These promises included control over territories on its border with Austria-Hungary, such as Trentino, South Tyrol, and Trieste, as well as parts of Dalmatia and islands along the Adriatic coast.
Italy's declaration of war opened up a new front in World War I, stretching along its border with Austria-Hungary. The Italian army mobilized a significant force of 1.2 million men in the spring of 1915, although they faced equipment shortages. The fighting between Italy and Austria-Hungary was intense and resulted in heavy losses for both sides, with numerous battles fought along the Isonzo River. In late 1917, German intervention led to a significant Austrian-Hungarian victory at the Battle of Caporetto, causing a crisis in Italy and leading to increased assistance from its allies.
In conclusion, Italy's declaration of war on Austria-Hungary in 1915 was driven by its pursuit of territorial gains and nationalistic politics. This decision had far-reaching consequences, shaping the course of World War I and contributing to the eventual defeat of the Central Powers, which included Austria-Hungary. Italy's entry into the war also had a significant impact on the region's geopolitical landscape, altering the balance of power and setting the stage for post-war territorial rearrangements.
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The Second Italian War of Independence
Following their defeat by Austria in the First Italian War of Independence, the Piedmontese recognised their need for allies. Prime Minister Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, attempted to establish relations with other European powers, including Britain and France, through Piedmont's participation in the Crimean War. In the peace conference at Paris after the Crimean War, Cavour tried to bring attention to efforts for Italian unification. Although Britain and France were sympathetic, they refused to go against Austrian wishes as any movement towards Italian independence would threaten Austria's territory of Lombardy-Venetia.
Private talks between Napoleon III and Cavour after the conference identified Napoleon as the most likely candidate to aid Italy, although he was still uncommitted. On 14 January 1858, an Italian named Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate Napoleon III. The assassination attempt brought widespread sympathy for the Italian unity movement and had a profound effect on Napoleon III himself, who now wanted to help Piedmont against Austria to defuse the wider revolutionary activities, which governments in Italy might later allow to happen. After a covert meeting at Plombières on 21 July 1858, Napoleon III and Cavour signed a secret treaty of alliance against Austria on 28 January 1859, known as the Plombières Agreement. France agreed to support Sardinia's efforts to expel Austria from Italy in return for territorial compensation in the form of the Duchy of Savoy and the County of Nice.
Sardinia mobilised its army on 9 March 1859, and Austria mobilised on 9 April. On 23 April, Austria delivered an ultimatum to Sardinia, demanding its demobilisation. When Sardinia refused, Austria declared war on 26 April and invaded three days later. The first French troops entered Piedmont on 25 April, and France declared war on Austria on 3 May. The Austrian invasion was stopped by the arrival of French troops in Piedmont that had begun in late April. The Austrian army of about 120,000 men was defeated at the Battle of Magenta on 4 June and pushed back to Lombardy, where the Franco-Sardinian victory at the Battle of Solferino on 24 June resulted in the end of the war and the signing of the Armistice of Villafranca on 12 July.
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The Third Italian War of Independence
On 8 April 1866, Italy signed a military alliance with Prussia, mediated by French Emperor Napoleon III. Italian armies, led by General Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora, were to engage with the Austrians on the southern front. Italy also planned to take advantage of its naval superiority by threatening the Dalmatian coast and seizing Trieste. However, the Italian military faced challenges due to the amalgamation of the armies of the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, resulting in disputes within the chain of command.
The Italian forces were divided into two armies. One army, under La Marmora, was deployed in Lombardy, west of the Mincio River, aiming towards the Austrian fortress of the Quadrilatero. The second army, led by Enrico Cialdini, was deployed in Romagna, south of the Po River, with the goal of advancing towards Mantua and Rovigo. La Marmora initiated the offensive but suffered a defeat at the Battle of Custoza on 24 June, forcing him to retreat back across the Mincio River. Cialdini, on the other hand, initially adopted a defensive strategy, conducting shows of force but failing to defeat the Austrians at Borgoforte.
Following the Battle of Custoza, the Italians reorganised in anticipation of an Austrian counter-offensive. The Austrians seized this opportunity to raid Valtellina and Val Camonica (Battle of Vezza d'Oglio). However, the tide turned in Italy's favour with Prussian victories in Bohemia, particularly the Battle of Königgrätz on 3 July, which compelled the Austrians to redeploy their forces. On 5 July, Napoleon III proposed a settlement that would allow Austria to receive favourable conditions from Prussia and retain Venice. This put Italy in an embarrassing position, as its forces had not achieved any significant victories up to that point.
On 14 July, the Italians devised new war plans during a council of war in Ferrara. Cialdini was to lead the main army of 150,000 troops through Venetia, while La Marmora would engage Austrian forces in the Quadrilatero with 70,000 men. The Italian Navy, under Admiral Carlo di Persano, was tasked with setting sail from Ancona to capture Trieste. Cialdini crossed the Po on 8 July and advanced towards Udine on 22 July, while Garibaldi's volunteers won the Battle of Bezzecca on 21 July during the Invasion of Trentino. Despite these advances, the Italian Navy suffered a significant defeat at the Battle of Lissa on 20 July.
The cessation of Austro-Prussian hostilities and the potential for Austrian reinforcements from Liechtenstein led to a shift in the balance of power. The war ultimately concluded with Austria conceding the region of Venetia to France, which was later annexed by Italy after a plebiscite. This acquisition represented a significant step towards the unification of Italy, marking the Third Italian War of Independence as a crucial chapter in the nation's pursuit of full national unity.
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The Anschluss
The idea of unification had supporters and opponents in both Austria and Germany before and after World War I. Many Austrian citizens, particularly those on the political left and center, supported the unification, believing that Austria, stripped of its imperial land, was not economically viable. However, by the end of 1933, Austrian public opinion about German annexation had shifted, with at least 60% against the idea.
In the early 1930s, the rise of the Nazis further destabilized Austrian politics, which was already characterized by infighting and political violence. Austrian chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss transformed Austria into a right-wing authoritarian regime, which was diplomatically aligned with Fascist Italy and authoritarian Hungary. In 1934, Hitler ordered a coup in Austria, which failed and led to Mussolini sending troops to defend Austrian sovereignty.
In February 1938, Hitler invited the Austrian chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg to Germany and forced him to agree to give the Austrian Nazis a free hand. Schuschnigg later announced a plebiscite on Austrian independence, but he was pressured to cancel it and resign. On March 12, 1938, Germany invaded Austria, and the annexation was completed on March 13. A controlled plebiscite held on April 10 gave a 99.7% approval rating. The Anschluss resulted in the rapid Nazification of Austria, and Austrians participated in the persecution of the country's Jewish population and the mass murder of Europe's Jews.
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Italy's alliance with Prussia against Austria
In the mid-19th century, Italy was not a unified country but rather a collection of smaller kingdoms and city-states, some of which were under the control of foreign powers, including Austria. This period saw a rise in Italian nationalism and a desire to expel foreign rulers and unite the peninsula under a single Italian state. One of the key moments in this process was the alliance formed between Italy and Prussia against Austria, which played out during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866.
The immediate cause of the war was Prussia's desire to unite the German states under its leadership, which brought it into conflict with Austria, the traditional leader of the German Confederation. Italy, seeking to expel the Austrians from northern Italy and consolidate its own unification process, saw an opportunity in Prussia's challenge to Austrian dominance. On April 8, 1866, Italy and Prussia signed a secret agreement, committing to support each other in the event of Austrian aggression. The agreement also stipulated that Italy would acquire the Austrian-controlled region of Venetia in the event of a Prussian victory.
On June 16, Prussia mobilized against Austria, and on June 20, Italy declared war on Austria, initiating the Third Italian War of Independence. The Italian army, however, was poorly led and lacked effective coordination. Despite initial successes, the Italians suffered a series of defeats, most notably at the Battle of Custoza on June 24. Nevertheless, the Prussian victory at the Battle of Königgrätz on July 3 forced the Austrians to transfer troops to the German front, relieving pressure on the Italians.
The Austro-Prussian War concluded with the Peace of Prague on August 23, 1866. Despite Italy's lackluster military performance, the alliance with Prussia achieved its primary objective. As per the agreement, Prussia allowed Italy to annex Venetia, although the region remained under Austrian administration until a plebiscite was held the following year. The alliance with Prussia represented a significant step towards Italian unification, removing the Austrian presence in the peninsula and allowing the Kingdom of Italy to expand its territory and consolidate its position.
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Frequently asked questions
Austria invaded the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1859, which was part of the Italian peninsula.
Italy invaded Austria-Hungary in 1915, during World War I.
Yes, Germany invaded Austria in 1938. This was known as the Anschluss.
No, Austria did not invade Italy during World War II. However, Austria was aligned with Fascist Italy and authoritarian Hungary during this period.
