Lyla Lindsey
The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary in 1908 was a significant event that upset the fragile balance of power in the Balkans and had wide-ranging political and diplomatic repercussions. While Austria-Hungary had been granted the right to occupy and administer the region since 1878, the formal annexation in 1908 sparked protests from neighbouring countries and Great Powers, leading to a crisis that damaged relations and fuelled nationalist sentiments in the region.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of Conquest | 1878 |
| Treaty | Treaty of San Stefano, Treaty of Berlin, Three Emperors' League treaty |
| Annexation Date | 5 or 6 October 1908 |
| Annexation Crisis | Bosnian Crisis |
| Annexation Reason | To isolate Bosnian Muslims from the Ottoman Empire |
| Annexation Result | Protests from great powers and Balkan neighbours Serbia and Montenegro |
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What You'll Learn
The Austro-Hungarian Army's mobilisation and assault on Bosnia and Herzegovina
The Austro-Hungarian Army's campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina began in July 1878, with the aim of establishing formal rule over the region. At the time, Bosnia and Herzegovina were still formally part of the Ottoman Empire, but the Austro-Hungarians had been granted provisional authority by the Treaty of Berlin. The Austro-Hungarian Army entered the country in two large movements: one from the north into Bosnia and another from the south into Herzegovina.
The Austro-Hungarian Army engaged in a significant mobilisation effort to prepare for the assault on Bosnia and Herzegovina. By the end of June 1878, they had assembled a force of 82,113 troops, 13,313 horses, and 112 cannons. The army was divided into several divisions, including the VI, VII, XX, and XVIII infantry divisions, as well as a rear army. The Austro-Hungarian forces faced resistance from local Muslims and Orthodox Serbs, who were unofficially supported by Ottoman Empire troops. Despite this, the Austro-Hungarian Army steadily advanced, capturing key cities such as Mostar in Herzegovina and Sarajevo in Bosnia.
The campaign was marked by fierce battles, with the Austro-Hungarian Army suffering significant casualties. On 3 August, a troop of hussars was ambushed near Maglaj on the Bosna River, leading to the declaration of martial law. On 7 August, a major battle near Jajce resulted in the loss of 600 Austro-Hungarian infantrymen. The unexpected violence of the campaign led to recriminations between commanders and political leaders. Total Austro-Hungarian losses were estimated to be almost 5,200, with 946 dead, 272 missing, and 3,980 wounded.
The fall of Sarajevo on 19 August 1878 marked a pivotal moment in the campaign. However, in the hilly countryside, a guerrilla campaign by the resistance fighters continued. The Austro-Hungarian forces had to deploy five corps with a collective strength of 153,300 soldiers to finally subdue the region. The last rebel stronghold fell after their leader was captured, bringing an end to the campaign in October 1878.
Following the establishment of Austro-Hungarian rule, various social and administrative reforms were implemented with the aim of making Bosnia and Herzegovina a "model colony". The Austro-Hungarian administration advocated the ideal of a pluralist and multi-confessional Bosnian nation. However, tensions and resistance to their rule persisted, with a joint uprising of Serbs and Muslims occurring in 1882 due to unresolved agrarian issues, taxes, and imposed military obligations. The Austro-Hungarian troops suppressed this uprising, but sporadic resistance continued until November 1882.
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The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
The annexation was the result of a plan formulated by Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Alois Aehrenthal in 1907 to solidify Austria-Hungary's position towards Serbia through annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. In 1878, the Treaty of Berlin had allowed for sole Austrian occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, but did not specify a final disposition of the provinces. This omission was addressed in the Three Emperors' League treaty of 1881, where both Germany and Russia endorsed Austria's right to annex Bosnia-Herzegovina. However, by 1897, Russia had withdrawn its support.
In September 1908, Aehrenthal met with the Russian foreign minister, Aleksandr P. Izvolsky, at Buchlau, in Moravia. Izvolsky agreed that Russia would not object to the annexation, in return for Austria not objecting to the opening of the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits to Russian warships. On 7 October 1908, Austria-Hungary formally annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The annexation upset the fragile balance of power in the Balkans, enraging Serbia and pan-Slavic nationalists throughout Europe. It permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbours, especially Serbia, Italy and Russia. It also led to the formation of Muslim political opposition in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which demanded religious autonomy from Austria-Hungary. The Muslim opposition tried to align itself with the Serbs, who were also demanding religious and educational autonomy.
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The Bosnian Crisis
The background to the crisis can be traced back to the mid-1870s, which witnessed violent rebellions against Ottoman rule in the Balkans and violent and repressive responses from the Ottoman Empire. The Russian Tsar, Alexander II, wanted to intervene and obtained an agreement with Austria-Hungary in the Budapest Conventions of 1877. In this agreement, Russia would annex Bessarabia, and Austria-Hungary would remain neutral in the impending war with the Ottoman Empire. As compensation, Russia agreed to Austria-Hungary's control over Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The Russians then declared war on the Ottoman Empire and drove them back to within a few miles of Constantinople. However, the other Great Powers, particularly Britain and Austria-Hungary, enforced the earlier London Straits Convention of 1841, which stated that the Straits of Constantinople would be closed to warships during wartime. This prevented the Russians from driving the Ottomans out of Europe and effectively bottled up the Russian fleet in the Black Sea.
After their victory, the Russians imposed the Treaty of San Stefano on the Ottomans, which declared that Bosnia and Herzegovina would be jointly occupied by Russian and Austrian troops. This treaty was overturned by the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, which gave Austria-Hungary special rights in these provinces. The Treaty of Berlin allowed for sole Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina but did not specify the final disposition of the provinces. This omission was addressed in the Three Emperors' League treaty of 1881, where Germany and Russia endorsed Austria's right to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In 1908, the Young Turks staged a revolution in Constantinople, establishing a constitutional government and a reform program. The following day, Emperor Franz Joseph announced his determination to recognise and grant the Ottoman territory autonomy under his authority. On 7 October 1908, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, leading to the Bosnian Crisis. This annexation was a significant concern for Serbia, which was closely related to Bosnia and Herzegovina geographically and ethnically. Serbia demanded that Austria cede a portion of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Russia, pressured by anti-Austrian sentiment, supported these claims.
The crisis was eventually resolved in 1909 without immediate warfare. However, it permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbours, especially Serbia, Italy, and Russia. The resulting resentment and embittered relations contributed to the outbreak of World War I.
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The Treaty of Berlin
The treaty allowed for sole Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, although it did not specify a final disposition of the provinces. This was addressed in the Three Emperors' League treaty of 1881, where Germany and Russia endorsed Austria's right to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina.
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The Three Emperors' League treaty
The Three Emperors League treaty, also known as the League of the Three Emperors or the Dreikaiserbund, was an alliance between the German, Russian, and Austro-Hungarian Empires. It was formed on June 18, 1881, and lasted for three years until it lapsed in 1887. The treaty was negotiated by Otto von Bismarck, who took charge of German foreign policy from 1870 to 1890. His goal was to maintain peace in Europe by balancing the powers of Austria-Hungary, France, and Russia, fearing that a combination of two of these powers would crush Germany.
The Three Emperors League treaty addressed the omission of the Treaty of Berlin (1878), which allowed for sole Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina but did not specify a final disposition of the provinces. The 1881 treaty endorsed Austria's right to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, with both Germany and Russia agreeing that no territorial changes should take place in the Balkans without prior agreement. This was a significant development, as Bosnia and Herzegovina were coveted by many, including Austria and Hungary themselves, and the decision preserved the delicate balance of power in Europe.
The treaty also included other provisions, such as the recognition of the European and mutually obligatory character of the principle of the closing of the Straits of the Bosporus and of the Dardanelles, based on international law and treaties. The three powers agreed to take into account their respective interests in the Balkan Peninsula and promised that any modifications to the territorial status quo of Turkey in Europe would only be accomplished through a common agreement between them.
The Three Emperors League treaty was not renewed when it expired in 1884, and instead, Russia moved closer diplomatically to France, leading to the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894. The dissolution of the league took Europe a step closer to the outbreak of World War I.
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Frequently asked questions
Bosnia and Herzegovina fell under Austro-Hungarian rule in 1878 when the Congress of Berlin approved the occupation of the Bosnia Vilayet, which was still officially part of the Ottoman Empire.
The Bosnian Crisis, also known as the Annexation Crisis, was a period of heightened international tension in 1908 caused by Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This unilateral action upset the fragile balance of power in the Balkans, enraging Serbia and pan-Slavic nationalists throughout Europe.
The crisis ended with what appeared to be a diplomatic victory for Austria-Hungary, as the Treaty of Berlin was amended in April 1909 to reflect the annexation. However, it permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbours, especially Serbia, Italy, and Russia.
