Ruqayyah Snyder
The Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary had a long history of rivalry and conflict, with the former often allying with France, a frequent foe of the Austrian Habsburgs. The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 established the empire as a world power, and its presence in the Balkans posed a direct threat to the Austrian Habsburgs. The two powers clashed in the Ottoman-Habsburg Wars, with the Austrians relying on Hungarian economic might and superior Ottoman numbers. The Austro-Turkish War of 1788-1791, which ended in a negotiated peace, was particularly devastating for Austria's economy and domestic reform efforts. In the 19th century, the Ottomans faced territorial losses and sought alliances with European powers to strengthen their position. In 1908, the Austrians seized Bosnia-Herzegovina from Ottoman rule, causing displeasure. However, in 1914, the Ottoman Empire aligned with the Central Powers, including Austria-Hungary, during World War I, seeking military support and modernisation.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of Alliance | 2nd August 1914 |
| Parties Involved | German Empire, Ottoman Empire |
| Type of Alliance | Military |
| Goal | Strengthen Ottoman military, provide Germany with safe passage to British colonies |
| Historical Context | Outbreak of World War I, Italo-Turkish War, Balkan Wars |
| Previous Relations | Austro-Turkish War (1788-1791), Ottoman-Habsburg Wars, Ottoman-Venetian War (1716-1718) |
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What You'll Learn
The Ottoman-Habsburg Wars
The earliest conflict in the Ottoman-Habsburg Wars was the Little War in Hungary, which lasted from 1526 to 1568. This war was sparked by the Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent's campaign to drive out John Zápolya and enforce his authority in Hungary. Despite some initial gains by Ferdinand I, such as the capture of Buda, the Ottomans ultimately prevailed, and the war ended with the Treaty of Constantinople in 1533. This treaty recognized John Szapolyai as the King of Hungary as an Ottoman vassal, while the Ottomans acknowledged the land under Habsburg rule in Hungary. However, neither side was satisfied with this arrangement, and skirmishes along the borders continued.
The conflict escalated with the Siege of Szigetvár in 1566, which resulted in the death of Suleiman and a temporary peace agreement in 1568. The wars continued intermittently until the 17th century, with notable events including the Ottoman victory at the Battle of Preveza in 1538, the unsuccessful Siege of Szigetvár in 1541, and the capture of Buda by the Ottomans in 1541. The Habsburgs assembled a large coalition of European powers known as the Holy League to regain control over Hungary, leading to the Great Turkish War, which ended with a decisive Holy League victory at Zenta.
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The German-Ottoman Alliance
The Ottoman Empire, facing a weakened position and internal pressure, sought an alliance with a European power to ensure its survival. Germany, harbouring imperial ambitions since 1890, saw the Ottoman Empire as a strategic partner. The Baghdad Railway, proposed before the war, would have advanced German influence in the region, including the settlement of Germans in Anatolia, and improved troop transportation to the Persian Gulf and British Raj.
The alliance aimed to strengthen and modernise the weak Ottoman military, which had suffered territorial losses and economic decline prior to the war. It also provided Germany with safe passage into neighbouring British colonies. The Ottoman Empire maintained neutrality in the early months of the war but allowed a German naval presence near the Bosphorus. Germany provided financial aid and weapons to the Ottomans.
Tensions escalated when the Ottoman Empire closed the Dardanelles to all shipping on September 27, 1914, blocking Russia's access to the Black Sea. On October 10, 1914, a gold loan agreement was signed to finance Turkish mobilisation, and on October 29, the Ottomans entered the war, bombarding Russian ports. A more general alliance was signed between the two empires on January 22, 1915, lasting five years.
Austria-Hungary adhered to the Ottoman-German treaty on August 5, 1914, and formally joined the alliance in March 1916. The alliance was terminated on November 7, 1918, after the Armistice of Mudros.
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The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople
The Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary formed an alliance in 1914, shortly after the outbreak of World War I. This was part of Germany's ambition to strengthen the weak Ottoman military and gain safe passage into neighbouring British colonies.
Now, onto the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans.
The Rise of the Ottomans
The Ottoman Empire, named after its founder Othman, began as a small tribe in western Anatolia. Over time, they embraced the cause of the ghazi, the holy warrior of Islam, and expanded their territories. In 1354, the Ottomans gained a foothold in Gallipoli, and in 1361, they seized Adrianople, making it their capital.
The Siege of Constantinople
As the 15th century began, the Ottomans set their sights on Constantinople, laying siege to the city for seven years. However, their efforts were thwarted by Tamerlane, the last of the great Mongols, who defeated them at Angora in 1402. The Byzantines regained some power, but the respite was temporary. In 1422, the Ottomans returned to Constantinople's walls, and a treaty reduced the Byzantine Empire to little more than the city itself and the Morea.
The Fall of Constantinople
On April 6, 1453, the Ottoman Army, led by the 21-year-old Sultan Mehmed II, began a 55-day siege of Constantinople, which culminated in its capture on May 29. The city, defended by Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos, fell to the Ottomans' superior numbers. Mehmed II made Constantinople the new Ottoman capital and proclaimed himself "the Conqueror."
The fall of Constantinople marked a significant shift, signalling the end of the medieval period and the beginning of the early modern era. It also sent chills of terror through the West, as the threat of the Turks dominated European politics for centuries. The city itself underwent modernisation and evolution under Ottoman rule, with Christian and Muslim populations coexisting.
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The Austro-Turkish War
During the Austro-Turkish War, Habsburg armies succeeded in taking Belgrade in 1789 and liberating much of central Serbia, also capturing several forts in the Pounje region of Ottoman Bosnia. However, many of these gains were lost in the later stages of the war, which ended with the Treaty of Sistova in 1791, resulting in minor territorial changes in favour of the Habsburg side. The war had a negative impact on Austria's economy and hindered its progress towards establishing a modern civil society.
The Austrians entered the war in February 1788, but their slow preparations allowed the Ottomans to concentrate their forces on Belgrade. Relying on Russian support in Moldavia, which only commenced in late 1788, the Austrians faced challenges as Joseph II seemed reluctant to engage in battle with the Ottomans. In July, the Ottomans crossed the Danube and invaded the Austrian Banat. Both sides suffered from a shortage of supplies, and disease struck the Austrian soldiers, with malaria playing a significant role.
The conflict resulted in heavy casualties for both sides, and Joseph II himself spent much of the war at the front, ultimately falling ill and dying from his illness after returning home in February 1790. Leopold II, Joseph's successor, was compelled to end the war due to the looming threat of Prussian intervention in support of the Ottomans. The negotiated outcome, established by the Treaty of Sistova in August 1791, left Austria with meagre gains, returning nearly all conquered territories except for a small town and a strip of land near the Bosnian-Croatian border.
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The Three Emperors' League
The signatories of the Three Emperors' League agreed to consult each other on any changes in the status quo in the Ottoman Empire. Russia was assured that its position regarding Bulgaria and the Straits (the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, and the Bosporus) would be recognized. In return, Russia promised Austria-Hungary that it would not object to a possible annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the future. This promise was significant as it indicated a shift in Russia's stance towards Austria-Hungary, which had previously been hostile.
The formation of the Three Emperors' League was part of a broader shift in European alliances. In the final years of the 19th century, there was a change from a static continental policy to a more dynamic world policy, which increased mobility in international relations. This shift reduced the value of the Triple Alliance, which had previously isolated France and guaranteed the status quo along the Ottoman borders.
The Austro-Russian agreements that underpinned the Three Emperors' League came to bear in 1903 during a major revolt in Macedonia. In October of that year, Tsar Nicholas II and Franz Joseph met and their foreign ministers drafted a reform program for the Ottoman Empire. A mutual neutrality agreement was added in 1904, which ensured Austrian freedom of action in the event of a conflict with Italy and allowed Russia to focus on the Russo-Japanese War.
Despite the Three Emperors' League, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had a long history of conflict. The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 established the Ottomans as a world empire and brought them into direct conflict with the Austrian Habsburg Empire over the Balkans. The Ottoman-Habsburg Wars of the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, such as the war of 1716-1718 and the war of 1736-1739, resulted in significant territorial losses for the Ottomans. The Austro-Turkish War of 1788-1791 ended with a negotiated peace and meagre gains for Austria, despite heavy casualties on both sides.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Ottoman Empire continued to face challenges, including the loss of Bulgaria to Austrian and Bulgarian coordination in 1908 and the Italo-Turkish War. These factors, combined with Germany's imperial ambitions and technological superiority, led to the Ottoman Empire's alliance with Germany and entry into World War I in 1914.
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Frequently asked questions
Austria and the Ottoman Empire never formed an alliance. In fact, they were often rivals and fought each other in the Austro-Turkish War from 1788-1791.
The Ottoman Empire formed an alliance with Germany in 1914, shortly after the outbreak of World War I.
Yes, Austria and the Ottoman Empire were rivals and fought each other in the Austro-Turkish War from 1788-1791. They also fought in the Ottoman-Habsburg Wars of the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries.
Yes, Germany and the Ottoman Empire had a history of collaboration prior to World War I. Germany had imperial ambitions and saw the Ottoman Empire as a useful ally. From 1903 onwards, Germany helped the Ottomans with their Baghdad Railway project and positioned its naval Mediterranean Division in Constantinople.
