Azerbaijan's Separation From Iran: A Historical Turning Point

Azerbaijan was separated from Iran in the first half of the 19th century, following the Russo-Persian Wars of 1804-1813 and 1826-1828. The territory north of the Aras River, which was historically part of Iran, was occupied by Russia and later became the independent Republic of Azerbaijan. The separation of Azerbaijan from Iran was formalised by the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813 and the Treaty of Turkmenchay in 1828, which defined the border between Czarist Russia and Qajar Iran.

The Russo-Persian Wars of the 19th century

First Russo-Persian War (1804-1813)

The First Russo-Persian War was fought between 1804 and 1813. It was sparked by Persia's desire to secure its northwestern territories under the Qajar dynasty. At the time, Persia laid claim to Karabakh, Shirvan, Talesh, and Shakki, but these claims were threatened by Russia's annexation of Georgia in 1801. Russia aimed to extend its imperial frontiers to the Aras and Kura rivers and consolidate its hold on the newly acquired territories.

The war began when Prince Paul Tsitsianov marched towards Echmiadzin at the head of Russian, Georgian, and Armenian troops. Despite being outnumbered, the Persian defence held firm, and the Russians were unable to capture Echmiadzin or Yerevan. Although the Russians had the strategic initiative, they lacked the strength to crush the Persian resistance. The Persian Army, led by Abbas Mirza, outnumbered the Russians several times over but was inferior in terms of military training and organization.

The principal fighting took place on both sides of Lake Sevan, along the Yerevan and Gandzha axes, where the main roads to Tiflis (Tbilisi) were located. In 1804, Tsitsianov's troops routed the main Persian forces at Kanagir, near Yerevan. In 1805, a Russian naval expedition to capture Baku and Resht failed, and Tsitsianov was murdered during negotiations with the Khan of Baku. Despite this setback, Russian troops occupied Nukha, Derbent, Baku, and Kuba in the summer of 1806.

The Russo-Turkish War of 1806-1812 forced the Russians into a temporary truce with Persia, but peace negotiations proceeded slowly, and military actions resumed in 1808. Russian troops occupied Echmiadzin, besieged Yerevan, and defeated the troops of Abbas Mirza at Qarababa in October 1808, occupying Nakhichevan. After the unsuccessful storming of Yerevan, General Gudovich was replaced by General Tormasov, who resumed peace negotiations.

However, Persian troops under Fath Ali Shah invaded the Gumry-Artik region, and the Russians were forced to repel the Shah's troops and the forces of Abbas Mirza, who were attempting to capture Gandzha (Elizavetpol). In 1810, Colonel Kotliarevskii defeated the forces of Abbas Mirza at Megri and on the Araks River. In September 1810, a Persian offensive was repelled near Akhalkalaki, thwarting their attempt to link up with the Turks.

In July 1811, Tormasov was replaced by General Pauluchchi, who was himself replaced by General Rtishchev in February 1812. However, in August 1812, Abbas Mirza's forces captured Lenkoran, and the negotiations were broken off when Tehran received news that Napoleon had occupied Moscow. In October 1812, Kotliarevskii crossed the Araks River with 1,500 men and defeated a Persian army of 30,000 at Aslanduz. On January 1, 1813, he took Lenkoran by storm.

Second Russo-Persian War (1826-1828)

The Second Russo-Persian War was fought between 1826 and 1828. It was instigated by Great Britain, which had imposed a shackling treaty on Persia in 1814. At the Persian court, the militant group of Abbas Mirza gained the upper hand, and on July 16, 1826, Persian troops crossed the frontier near Gumry and invaded the Khanate of Talysh without a declaration of war. Persia sent detachments against Baku, Lenkoran, Nukha, and Kuba, counting on a rising of the Azerbaijani population. However, the populace did not support their khans, who were on Persia's side.

Persian troops occupied Gandzha (Elizavetpol) and besieged Shusha, whose garrison held out until September 5. A Russian detachment, commanded by General Madatov, routed the Persian troops on the Shamkhor River and liberated Gandzha. Abbas Mirza lifted the siege of Shusha and advanced to meet Madatov's troops, but on September 13, Russian troops routed his army of 35,000 and forced the remaining troops beyond the Araks River. In March 1827, General Paskevich replaced Ermolov as commander-in-chief.

The Russian forces began an offensive along the Yerevan axis, occupied Echmiadzin, sealed off Yerevan, and later captured Nakhichevan and the fortress of Abbasabad. Persian attempts to force the Russians from Yerevan ended in failure, and on October 1, 1827, Yerevan was taken by storm. Russian troops then advanced on the Nakhichevan-Tabriz line, and on October 14, Russian forces occupied Tabriz.

The rapid advance of Russian troops into Persia and the occupation of Urmia and Ardebil in January 1828 forced the Shah to accept peace conditions. The Treaty of Turkmanchay was signed on February 10, 1828. Russia received the khanates of Yerevan and Nakhichevan, and Persia ceded the Erivan, Talesh, and Nakhichevan khanates. The Aras River was established as the new border between the two empires. Persia was also required to pay 20 million rubles in silver as indemnification.

Aftermath

The Russo-Persian Wars also had a significant impact on the region's demographics. The Russian conquest sparked an exodus of Caucasian Muslims towards Iran, including many Turkic peoples from north of the Aras River. The territories south of the Aras River, which comprised the region historically known as Azerbaijan, became the new northwestern frontier of Persia (Iran).

The Russo-Persian Wars were part of a broader pattern of Russian expansionism in the region. Since the 1790s, Russia had been moving militarily towards the Caucasus, seeking to gain control of the region and exert influence over its neighboring empires, the Ottoman Empire and Persia. The Russo-Persian Wars were followed by increasing Russian influence in Northern Iran, including Iranian Azerbaijan, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic

The ADR was governed by a parliamentary system, with a Parliament elected on the basis of universal, free, and proportionate representation. The Council of Ministers was responsible to Parliament, and Fatali Khan Khoyski became its first prime minister. The Musavat party was the dominant force in the ADR, but other parties, including the Ahrar, Ittihad, and Muslim Social Democrats, also gained seats. The Parliament extended suffrage to women, making Azerbaijan one of the first countries in the world, and the first majority-Muslim nation, to grant women equal political rights with men.

The ADR's foreign policy was based on friendly relations with neighbouring countries, regardless of their nationalities and religious beliefs. It pursued a neutral policy with regard to the Russian Civil War and never sided with either the Red or White Army. The ADR established diplomatic relations with several states, including the Ottoman Empire, which became the first foreign country to recognise its independence.

The ADR also faced territorial disputes with its neighbours, particularly the First Republic of Armenia and the Democratic Republic of Georgia. Additionally, a naming dispute arose with Qajar Iran, as the name "Azerbaijan" had previously been used to refer to the adjacent region of contemporary northwestern Iran.

The ADR's existence was short-lived, as it was invaded and occupied by the Red Army in April 1920, leading to the establishment of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic. Despite its brief existence, the ADR laid an important foundation for the re-establishment of Azerbaijani independence in 1991.

The Soviet Union's invasion of Azerbaijan

The territory of what is now the Republic of Azerbaijan was separated from Iran in the first half of the 19th century through the Russo-Persian Wars. The region north of the Aras River, which included the territory of the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan, was part of Iran until it was occupied by Russia.

In early January 1920, Moscow issued an order to dissolve all national organizations in Azerbaijan and merge them into the local Communist Party. The newly formed Azerbaijan Communist Party (AzCP) aimed to unite all ethnicities in the region, eliminating divisions between Muslims and Turks.

On 23 March 1920, Armenians in Karabakh and Yerevan began protesting. In response, the Azerbaijani government deployed a significant portion of its army to the region, leaving Baku and the northern territories with limited protection. Meanwhile, the Bolshevik Eleventh Army was advancing through the North Caucasus, approaching the borders of Azerbaijan.

By early 1920, Soviet Russia was in dire need of oil supplies from Baku. On 17 March 1920, Vladimir Lenin sent a telegraph to the Revolutionary Military Council on the Caucasus Front, stating:

> "We absolutely must take Baku. Direct all your efforts to this end, but it is necessary to remain strictly diplomatic in your statements and to ensure to a maximum extent a solid preparation for the local Soviet power."

On 21 April 1920, Mikhail Tukhachevsky, commander of the Red Army's Caucasus district, issued a directive for the 11th Red Army and the Volga-Caspian military flotilla to initiate an offensive towards Baku.

On 24 April, the Bolshevik army commenced mobilization, occupying government buildings and imposing martial law in Baku. Operations continued on 25 April, with all Communist Party committee members facing the threat of immediate death if they failed to comply with orders.

On 27 April 1920, the 11th Red Army, comprising over 30,000 soldiers, invaded Azerbaijan's territory. The following day, the Russian Communist Party, Azerbaijan Communist Party, and the Caucasian Regional Committee established the Azerbaijani Revolutionary Committee, which proclaimed itself the sole lawful authority in the country.

The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic ceased to exist on 28 April 1920, when it was occupied. The invasion of Azerbaijan had both economic and political motivations, with the primary reason being the country's oil resources, which would enable the Soviets to fulfill their territorial expansion plans.

The Iran Crisis of 1946

During World War II, in 1942, Iran had signed an agreement allowing British, Soviet, and American troops into the country to defend it from possible German attack. The treaty stated that all foreign troops would withdraw within six months of the war's end. However, when the deadline came in early 1946, the Soviets, under Joseph Stalin, remained in Iran. Soon after, the alliance of the Kurdish and People's Azerbaijani forces, supported by the Soviet Union, engaged in fighting with Iranian forces, resulting in a total of 2,000 casualties.

The Soviets had decided to take action in Iran, fearing that the British and Americans were conspiring to deny Russia its proper sphere of influence in the country. The Soviets came to the assistance of an Iranian rebel group in the northern regions of the country, and the United States complained to the United Nations about the situation in Iran, accusing the Soviets of interfering with a sovereign nation.

The situation escalated when the deadline for the withdrawal of foreign troops from Iran—March 2, 1946—passed and the Soviets were still in place. However, a major diplomatic confrontation was avoided when the Soviets announced on March 24, 1946, that they would be withdrawing their forces within six weeks. The Soviets kept their promise, moving their troops out of Iran in April 1946.

The Iranian crisis was an early test of power between the United States and the Soviet Union in the postwar world, and it helped set the tone for the developing Cold War. It was also the earliest evidence of the success of the new Truman Doctrine and containment strategy.

The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict

The conflict escalated into a full-scale war in the early 1990s following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The war was won by Artsakh and Armenia, and led to the occupation of regions around Soviet-era Nagorno-Karabakh. There were expulsions of ethnic Armenians from Azerbaijan and ethnic Azerbaijanis from Armenia and the Armenian-controlled areas. The ceasefire ending the war, signed in 1994 in Bishkek, was followed by two decades of relative stability, which significantly deteriorated in the 2010s.

In late 2020, the large-scale Second Nagorno-Karabakh War resulted in thousands of casualties and a significant Azerbaijani victory. An armistice was established by a tripartite ceasefire agreement on November 10, resulting in Azerbaijan regaining all of the occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh as well as capturing one-third of Nagorno-Karabakh itself.

Following Azerbaijan’s lightning offensive and occupation of Nagorno-Karabakh on September 19, 2023, the ethnic Armenian enclave was officially dissolved on January 1, 2024. Baku plans to “reintegrate” the region and its remaining population into Azerbaijan, promising economic development.

Historical Context

The Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO) was established in 1923 by the Soviet Union within the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic. The region was home to a 95% ethnically Armenian population. In 1988, the NKAO's regional legislature passed a resolution to join the Republic of Armenia, citing self-determination laws in the Soviet constitution. This act was met with a series of pogroms against Armenians across Azerbaijan, before violence was committed against both Armenians and Azerbaijanis.

First Nagorno-Karabakh War (1988-1994)

As the Soviet Union's dissolution neared, the tensions gradually grew into an increasingly violent conflict between ethnic Armenians and ethnic Azerbaijanis. Both sides made claims of ethnic cleansing and pogroms conducted by the other.

Full-scale fighting erupted in the late winter of 1992. International mediation by several groups, including the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), failed to bring resolution. In the spring of 1993, Armenian forces captured territory outside the enclave itself, threatening to catalyse the involvement of other countries in the region. By the end of the war in 1994, the Armenians were in full control of most of the enclave and also held and currently control approximately 9% of Azerbaijan's territory outside the enclave. An estimated 353,000 Armenians from Azerbaijan and 500,000 Azerbaijanis from Armenia and Karabakh have been displaced as a result of the conflict.

Second Nagorno-Karabakh War (2020)

Large-scale fighting began on the morning of September 27, 2020, with an Azerbaijani offensive along the line of contact established in the aftermath of the first war. Clashes were particularly intense in the less mountainous districts of southern Nagorno-Karabakh. On the same day, Azerbaijan's Parliament declared martial law and established curfews in several cities and regions following the clashes. Turkey provided military support to Azerbaijan, although the extent of this support has been disputed.

The war was marked by the deployment of drones, sensors, long-range heavy artillery and missile strikes, as well as by state propaganda and the use of official social media accounts in online information warfare. In particular, Azerbaijan's widespread use of drones was seen as crucial in determining the conflict's outcome. Numerous countries and the United Nations strongly condemned the fighting and called on both sides to de-escalate tensions and resume meaningful negotiations. Three ceasefires brokered by Russia, France, and the United States failed to stop the conflict.

Following the capture of Shusha, the second-largest city in Nagorno-Karabakh, a ceasefire agreement was signed, ending all hostilities in the area from November 10, 2020. Following the end of the war, an unconfirmed number of Armenian prisoners of war were captive in Azerbaijan, with reports of mistreatment and charges filed against them, leading to a case at the International Court of Justice.

Border Tensions (2021-present)

Following the end of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War, Azerbaijan has made numerous incursions into Armenian territory and has regularly violated the ceasefire agreement, provoking cross-border fights with Armenia. In order to strengthen the border against Azerbaijan's military incursions, Armenia allocated additional defense areas to border guards of the Russian Federal Security Service.

Frequently asked questions