The Mountainous Conflict: Armenia And Azerbaijan's Border Dispute

The mountainous region of Nagorno-Karabakh has been the source of conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan since the collapse of the Soviet Union. The territory, internationally recognised as part of Azerbaijan, has been controlled by ethnic Armenians for three decades. The conflict has resulted in two wars, the first in 1992 and the second in 2020, and has been the trigger for further violence and ethnic tension.

The Nagorno-Karabakh region is internationally recognised as part of Azerbaijan but has been controlled by ethnic Armenians for three decades

The Nagorno-Karabakh region, a landlocked mountainous area, has been the subject of a long-standing territorial dispute between Azerbaijan and its ethnic Armenian majority, backed by neighbouring Armenia. The region is internationally recognised as part of Azerbaijan but has been controlled by ethnic Armenians for three decades.

The roots of the conflict date back over a century, with competition between Christian Armenian and Muslim Turkic and Persian influences. In the 19th century, Nagorno-Karabakh was populated by Christian Armenian and Turkic Azeri people and became part of the Russian Empire. After World War One and the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, the new Soviet rulers established the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region, with an ethnic Armenian majority, within the Soviet Socialist Republic of Azerbaijan.

Following the break-up of the Soviet Union, Karabakh declared itself an independent republic, and as Soviet control loosened, tensions between Armenian and Azeri populations escalated into a full-scale war. This was the first Karabakh war, which lasted from 1988 to 1994 and resulted in around 30,000 casualties and hundreds of thousands of refugees. Armenia gained control of the region and pushed into Azerbaijani territory outside Karabakh, creating a buffer zone. A Russian-brokered ceasefire in 1994 left Karabakh de facto independent, with a self-proclaimed government in Stepanakert, but still heavily reliant on Armenia.

Since the 1994 ceasefire, there have been intermittent clashes, with the most intense fighting since the war occurring in April 2016, leading to hundreds of casualties. In September 2020, Azerbaijan launched an offensive that recaptured territory around Karabakh, resulting in a second Karabakh war. This conflict lasted six weeks and ended with a Russian-brokered ceasefire, with Azerbaijan reclaiming most of the territory it had lost.

In December 2022, Azerbaijanis claiming to be environmental activists blocked the Lachin corridor, the sole road connecting Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia and the outside world. This led to severe shortages and rationing in the region. In September 2023, Azerbaijan launched a military offensive, and the ethnic Armenian enclave was officially dissolved on 1 January 2024. Faced with the rule by Azerbaijan, over 100,000 people, almost the entire population of Nagorno-Karabakh, fled to Armenia in one week.

Azerbaijan now plans to "reintegrate" the region and its remaining population, promising economic development. However, many international observers do not consider Azerbaijan's claims that Artsakh Armenians can live safely under its rule to be credible. Political analysts predict that Azerbaijan would arbitrarily detain and torture civilians if it took control of the region.

The conflict escalated into a full-scale war in the early 1990s, resulting in around 30,000 casualties and hundreds of thousands of refugees

The conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the mountainous region of Nagorno-Karabakh escalated into a full-scale war in the early 1990s, resulting in a high number of casualties and refugees. The conflict, known as the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, lasted from 1988 to 1994 and was fought between the ethnic Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh, backed by the Republic of Armenia, and the Republic of Azerbaijan. The war was triggered by the declaration of the region's intention to join Armenia, despite its official location within Azerbaijan. This led to armed fighting between the two republics, fuelled by long-standing ethnic tensions and the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

The First Nagorno-Karabakh War resulted in significant casualties and displacement. Approximately 30,000 people lost their lives during the conflict, with estimates ranging from 28,000 to 38,000. The war also created a massive refugee crisis, with hundreds of thousands of people fleeing their homes. By 1993, Armenia had gained control of Nagorno-Karabakh and occupied 20% of Azerbaijan's geographic area. The conflict led to expulsions and ethnic cleansing, with ethnic Armenians forced out of Azerbaijan and ethnic Azerbaijanis expelled from Armenia and Armenian-controlled areas.

The war ended in 1994 with a Russian-brokered ceasefire known as the Bishkek Protocol. This ceasefire brought a temporary halt to the fighting and left Nagorno-Karabakh de facto independent, with a self-proclaimed government in Stepanakert. However, the region remained heavily reliant on Armenia for economic, political, and military support. The ceasefire provided a period of relative stability, but tensions remained high, and the conflict continued to smoulder.

In the following decades, violations of the ceasefire and cross-border clashes occurred periodically, with both sides employing attack drones, shelling, and special operations activities. In April 2016, intense fighting along the line of separation resulted in hundreds of casualties, marking the most violent escalation since the 1994 ceasefire. Despite mediation efforts by the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), a lasting solution to the conflict proved elusive.

In September 2020, large-scale fighting erupted once again, marking the start of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War. This conflict resulted in thousands of casualties and a significant Azerbaijani victory, with Azerbaijan reclaiming much of the territory it had lost in the previous war. The Second Nagorno-Karabakh War further exacerbated the humanitarian crisis, with more refugees and displaced persons on both sides.

The 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War ended with a Russian-brokered peace deal, with Azerbaijan regaining control of the region

The Nagorno-Karabakh region, internationally recognised as part of Azerbaijan but with a predominantly ethnic Armenian population, has been a source of conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan for decades. The Second Nagorno-Karabakh War in 2020, which resulted in thousands of casualties and a significant Azerbaijani victory, ended with a Russian-brokered peace deal.

The conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the mountainous Nagorno-Karabakh region has a long history, dating back to before the creation of the Soviet Union. Tensions were suppressed during the Cold War when both countries were Soviet states but re-emerged as the Soviet Union began to dissolve.

The First Nagorno-Karabakh War took place from 1988 to 1994, resulting in around 30,000 casualties and hundreds of thousands of refugees. The war ended with a Russian-brokered ceasefire known as the Bishkek Protocol, which left Nagorno-Karabakh de facto independent with a self-proclaimed government in Stepanakert, heavily reliant on Armenia.

In the decades following the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, there were intermittent clashes between Armenian and Azerbaijani forces, despite the ceasefire. In April 2016, intense fighting broke out, resulting in hundreds of casualties and foreshadowing the resumption of full-fledged war in 2020.

The Second Nagorno-Karabakh War began on 27 September 2020, with Azerbaijan launching its largest offensive in a generation to retake Nagorno-Karabakh and surrounding regions under Armenian control. The six-week war resulted in thousands of deaths and over 100,000 displaced people. Despite initial resistance, both countries eventually agreed to hold talks, and a ceasefire was brokered by Russia on 9 November 2020, with nearly 2,000 Russian peacekeepers deployed to the region.

The peace deal resulted in significant territorial concessions by Armenia, with Azerbaijan regaining control of the seven districts surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh that had been under Armenian control since the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. Azerbaijan also captured one-third of Nagorno-Karabakh itself, including the strategically important town of Shusha. The deal established the Lachin corridor, a transit route connecting Armenia to Nagorno-Karabakh, which would be monitored by Russian peacekeepers.

While the 2020 peace deal ended the large-scale conflict, tensions and clashes between Armenia and Azerbaijan continued in the following years, with periodic violations of the ceasefire. In 2022, a two-day conflict broke out, marking the most significant provocation since the 2020 war. In 2023, Azerbaijan launched an "anti-terrorist" offensive, resulting in the dissolution of the ethnic Armenian enclave, and negotiations began for the disarmament of Armenian separatists and the reintegration of Nagorno-Karabakh into Azerbaijan.

The Lachin corridor, monitored by Russian peacekeepers, serves as a transit route connecting Armenia to Nagorno-Karabakh

The mountainous region of Nagorno-Karabakh has been a source of conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The region, which is internationally recognised as part of Azerbaijan, is inhabited mostly by ethnic Armenians and was controlled by the self-proclaimed Republic of Artsakh, resulting in tensions and violence between the two countries.

The Lachin corridor is a small strip of land connecting Armenia to Nagorno-Karabakh, serving as a vital transit route for people and goods between the two areas. Following the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War in 2020, a ceasefire agreement was signed between Armenia and Azerbaijan, with Russia acting as a mediator. As part of this agreement, approximately 2,000 Russian peacekeepers were deployed to the region, including the Lachin corridor, to monitor the ceasefire and prevent further clashes. The peacekeepers are headquartered near Stepanakert, the capital of the Nagorno-Karabakh region.

The presence of Russian peacekeepers in the Lachin corridor is crucial for ensuring the safety and security of those travelling between Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh. They established observation posts and assisted in the exchange of fallen soldiers' bodies with the International Committee of the Red Cross. Additionally, the peacekeepers have been involved in demining operations in the region, working to remove explosive remnants of war and make the area safer for civilians.

However, the effectiveness of the Russian peacekeepers has been called into question on multiple occasions. In December 2022, Azerbaijani activists, with alleged state backing from Baku, occupied the Lachin corridor, protesting environmental degradation caused by illegal mining in Nagorno-Karabakh. The peacekeepers were unable to prevent the blockade, which resulted in severe shortages and rationing for residents in Nagorno-Karabakh. This incident raised doubts about the willingness or ability of the peacekeepers to fulfil their mandate of ensuring freedom of movement along the corridor, as stipulated in the 2020 trilateral ceasefire agreement.

Despite the presence of Russian peacekeepers, tensions and clashes between Armenia and Azerbaijan have continued. In September 2023, Azerbaijan launched a military offensive against Nagorno-Karabakh, resulting in a new ceasefire agreement mediated by the Russian peacekeeping command. The ongoing conflict and the perceived inaction of peacekeepers have led to international criticism and calls for alternative security arrangements in the region.

The conflict has caused a humanitarian crisis, with shortages of food, medicine, and other essential supplies

The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan has resulted in a humanitarian crisis, with severe shortages of food, medicine, and other essential supplies. The crisis has had a devastating impact on the people of the region, causing widespread suffering and displacement.

In December 2022, Azerbaijani activists, with alleged state backing from Baku, blocked the Lachin Corridor—the sole land connection between Nagorno-Karabakh and Armenia. This blockade cut off the region's food and medicine supplies, causing severe shortages and forcing residents to ration limited resources. The local Armenian authorities introduced food stamps, allowing only restricted purchases of staple goods such as rice, sugar, and cooking oil. Hospitals also faced critical drug shortages, and the International Red Cross had to intervene to evacuate critical patients to Armenia.

Azerbaijan's actions were allegedly in response to reports of illegal mining in the disputed enclave by Armenians, which violated the 2020 peace deal. However, Armenia accused the Azerbaijani government of orchestrating the demonstrations and using them as a pretext to tighten their control over the region. The blockade sparked tensions between the two countries and led to a deterioration of the already fragile situation.

The situation worsened in April 2023 when Azerbaijan opened a checkpoint on the highway, further restricting access to the region. They claimed it was necessary to intercept military shipments from Armenia to Nagorno-Karabakh. This move was met with condemnation from Armenia and ethnic Armenian leaders in Nagorno-Karabakh, who accused Azerbaijan of deliberately isolating the Karabakh Armenians and solidifying their control. The checkpoint effectively blocked Armenian passage, as Russia issued only a mild statement in response, failing to take decisive action to enforce the ceasefire agreement.

Azerbaijan's actions had a devastating impact on the people of Nagorno-Karabakh. With no supplies allowed through the corridor, shelves in the region sat empty, and hospitals continued to struggle with critical drug shortages. The humanitarian crisis turned even more dire when two children died due to a lack of essential medical care. Azerbaijan offered aid, but the region's leaders rejected it, refusing to accept assistance from the country they believed was responsible for creating the crisis.

The ongoing conflict and blockade have had severe consequences for the people of Nagorno-Karabakh, causing widespread displacement, food insecurity, and a lack of access to essential medical care. The international community has expressed concern and called for a resolution to the conflict, but a lasting peace agreement between Armenia and Azerbaijan has yet to be reached.

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