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The year 1800 was a significant one in the history of the long-standing conflict between France and Austria, which lasted from 1792 to 1815. It was during this year that Napoleon, having returned from Egypt, launched an assault against Austrian forces in Italy, scoring a decisive victory at the Battle of Marengo and forcing the Austrians to withdraw from the peninsula. This was followed by another French victory at Hohenlinden in Bavaria, which led to the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801, with Austria ceding territories to France and recognising French domination in several regions. Napoleon's popularity soared as a result of these victories, and he went on to establish the First French Empire in 1804, leading to Francis II of Austria proclaiming the Empire of Austria in response.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Year | 1800 |
| Conflict | War of the Second Coalition |
| Participants | France, Austria, Britain, Russia, Ottoman Empire, Portugal, Naples |
| Battles | Marengo, Hohenlinden, Engen, Stockach |
| Outcome | Austrian defeats, Treaty of Lunéville (1801) |
| Territorial Changes | Austria ceded Belgium to France, recognized French control of the Rhineland and Italy |
| Peace Treaty | Treaty of Lunéville (February 1801) |
| Mediator | N/A |
| Significant Events | Napoleon's invasion of Italy, French occupation of Vienna |
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What You'll Learn
Napoleon's invasion of Italy
In 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte, a young and relatively unknown commander, led an invasion of Italy as part of the Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1801). The French Army of Italy invaded with the aim of forcing the First Coalition to abandon Sardinia and pressuring Austria to leave Italy. Within two weeks, Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia was forced to sign an armistice, and Napoleon entered Milan, where he was welcomed as a liberator.
In 1797, Napoleon signed the Treaty of Campo Formio, by which the Republic of Venice was annexed to Austria, and Austria recognised the existence of the Cisalpine Republic and the annexation of Piedmont by France. Napoleon's invasion of Northern Italy caused disorder in the Papal States, and he declared war on the Papal States for a second time, sending 9,000 troops to occupy Rome and dissolve the state. Pope Pius VI was exiled from Rome and eventually died in Valence, France. Napoleon's Italian Republic was the successor of the Cisalpine Republic, and he became its president, with full executive powers.
During Napoleon's first Italian campaign, his army besieged Mantua, the centre of Austrian power in Italy. Napoleon determined to cut their supply line by taking the Austrian-held town of Arcole, which was surrounded by marshland and the river Alpone. After three days of fighting, the French took Arcole, and Napoleon drove the Austrians from Mantua and Italy.
In 1799, as part of the War of the Second Coalition, Bonaparte was away from the continent, leading the Egyptian Campaign. Some 60,000 French troops faced off against an equal number of Austrians, with an additional 50,000 Russians expected to arrive soon. In 1800, Napoleon returned from Egypt and raised a new army at Dijon, marching through Switzerland to attack the Austrian armies in Italy from behind. He defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Marengo and reoccupied northern Italy.
In 1801, the Austrians negotiated the Treaty of Lunéville, accepting the terms of the previous Treaty of Campo Formio. Austria agreed to recognise French domination of the Austrian Netherlands, Switzerland, and Italy.
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Austria's defeat at Hohenlinden
The Battle of Hohenlinden, which took place on 3 December 1800, was a decisive victory for the French army under General Jean Victor Marie Moreau over an Austrian and Bavarian force led by the 18-year-old Archduke John of Austria. The Austrian and Bavarian allies were forced into a disastrous retreat that compelled them to request an armistice, effectively ending the War of the Second Coalition.
General Moreau's 56,000-strong army engaged some 64,000 Austrians and Bavarians. The Austrian army was divided into four columns, with the three southern columns marching near the main road from Haag to Hohenlinden. The northern column, under Kienmayer, pushed through minimal French resistance at Isen and Buch, intending to draw the Austrians to his prepared positions. The Austrians, believing they were pursuing a beaten enemy, moved through heavily wooded terrain. However, they were ambushed by Moreau as they emerged from the Ebersberg forest, and their columns were not mutually supportive due to the difficult terrain, bad roads, and poor staff work.
Moreau had initially planned an offensive, but the surprise of the Austrian offensive caused him to change his strategy and form a defensive line around Hohenlinden. He held the centre and left while attacking on the right, with General Richepanse leading the attack on the right flank. The battle began around seven in the morning when the advance guard of Austrian General Kollowrat's column encountered the lead defensive positions of General Grouchy's forces. The Austrians immediately launched an attack, believing they were only facing a rearguard, but they were repulsed.
The combination of Grouchy, Ney, and Richepanse's attacks on Kollowrat's column caused it to collapse, and Archduke John barely escaped capture as his forces disintegrated. The rest of the Austrian units fell back when they learned of the collapse of Kollowrat's forces. The French suffered 3,000 casualties, while the Austrians lost 14,000. This crushing victory, along with the narrow French victory at the Battle of Marengo, ended the War of the Second Coalition and led to the Treaty of Lunéville in February 1801, which was highly favourable to France.
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Austria sues for peace
In the spring of 1800, Napoleon launched an assault against the Austrian armies in Italy. In June 1800, the French achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Marengo, after which the Austrians withdrew from the peninsula. The French also won a significant victory at Hohenlinden in Bavaria, which forced the Austrians to sue for peace for the second time.
The Austrians had already sued for peace in April 1800, after Napoleon captured Mantua and 18,000 Austrian troops surrendered. This led to the signing of the Treaty of Campo Formio in October 1797, in which Austria ceded Belgium to France and recognised French control of the Rhineland and much of Italy. The ancient Republic of Venice was also partitioned between Austria and France.
The second time Austria sued for peace, it resulted in the Treaty of Lunéville in February 1801. Austria agreed to cede the left bank of the Rhine to France and recognised French domination of the Austrian Netherlands, Switzerland, and Italy.
The Treaty of Lunéville ended the War of the Second Coalition (1799-1801), which had been the second war on revolutionary France by the European monarchies, led by Britain, Austria, and Russia. The first war, the War of the First Coalition (1792-97), had ended with the Treaty of Campo Formio.
From 1801 to 1805, the Austrian government focused on internal reform, especially finances, as the ongoing wars had been costly. However, Austria continued fighting against Napoleon throughout the Napoleonic Wars, except for a period between 1809 and 1813 when it was first allied with Napoleon during the invasion of Russia and later neutral during the first few weeks of the Sixth Coalition War.
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Treaty of Lunéville
The Treaty of Lunéville, or Peace of Lunéville, was signed on 9 February 1801 between the French Republic and Emperor Francis II, who signed on behalf of his own hereditary domains and the Holy Roman Empire. The signatories were Joseph Bonaparte, signing for France, and Count Ludwig von Cobenzl, the Austrian foreign minister, signing for the Emperor.
The treaty formally ended Austrian and Imperial participation in the War of the Second Coalition and the French Revolutionary Wars. It was signed after the Austrian army had been defeated by Napoleon Bonaparte at the Battle of Marengo in June 1800, and then by Jean Victor Moreau at the Battle of Hohenlinden in December of the same year. The Austrians were forced to sue for peace and the treaty was signed, confirming the terms of the Treaty of Campo Formio, which had been agreed in 1797.
The Treaty of Lunéville declared that "there shall be, henceforth and forever, peace, amity, and good understanding" between the parties. It required Austria to enforce the conditions of the Treaty of Campo Formio. The independence and sovereignty of the Cisalpine, Ligurian, Batavian and Helvetic republics were recognised. The entire left bank of the Rhine, including the Austrian Netherlands, was ceded to France, as was Imperial Italy, which became part of France and the new Italian Republic. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany was also ceded to France, and certain imperial fortresses on the right bank of the Rhine were to be demolished.
The treaty was accepted by the Imperial Diet on 7 March. The task of compensating those princes who lost territory, such as the Grand Duke of Tuscany and the Duke of Modena, was left to an Imperial deputation. France and Russia influenced the negotiations, with France urging for larger new territories to be formed, which it hoped would later become allies. The final document that reorganised the Empire, the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss, was signed on 25 February 1803.
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Napoleon's popularity in France
In the context of the ongoing conflict between France and Austria, Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power in France in 1799. He was a military general and statesman who played a key role in the French Revolution. In November 1799, he led a coup against the French Directory and became the First Consul of the Republic. He commanded the French army to victory in the War of the Second Coalition, defeating the Austrians at the Battle of Marengo in 1800. This victory solidified Napoleon's popularity in France and established him as a national hero.
Secondly, Napoleon implemented significant reforms during his time as First Consul from 1799 to 1804. He reformed the French educational system, developed the Napoleonic Code (a civil code), and negotiated the Concordat of 1801 with the Catholic Church, recognizing Catholicism as the majority religion in France. These reforms modernized various aspects of French society and governance.
Thirdly, Napoleon's popularity was enhanced by the economic recovery in France following the Revolutionary Wars. In 1802, France and Britain signed the Treaty of Amiens, bringing the wars to an end. With peace and economic improvement, Napoleon became increasingly popular domestically and abroad. This popularity led to a plebiscite in May 1802, asking the French people to make him consul for life, which further solidified his power.
However, it is important to note that Napoleon's legacy is controversial. While he is considered one of the greatest military generals in history, he is also known for his role in devastating wars, looting conquered territories, and his mixed record on civil rights. He abolished the free press, ended direct representative government, and reduced the civil rights of women and children in France.
In modern times, Napoleon remains a notable historical figure in France, with a division in opinions. According to a YouGov survey, one-third of French adults have a favourable view of him, while one-fifth hold an unfavourable view. Men are more likely to view him positively than women, and he is more popular among right-wing political groups than left-wing ones. Overall, Napoleon's legacy in France is a subject of ongoing debate, with a mix of admiration, criticism, and neutrality.
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Frequently asked questions
The French Revolution began at the end of the 18th century, and in 1800, France was in the midst of the French Revolutionary Wars. Napoleon Bonaparte had returned from Egypt and installed himself as First Consul, the head of the French government.
In 1800, France and Austria were at war with each other. They had been almost continuously in conflict since 1792. In the spring of 1800, Napoleon launched an assault against the Austrians in Italy.
Yes, Napoleon's forces won the Battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden in 1800, forcing the Austrians to sue for peace.
