Lyla Lindsey
Indigenous Australians consist of two distinct groups: the Aboriginal Australians of the mainland and the Torres Strait Islanders of the seas between Queensland and Papua New Guinea. They are the proud keepers of one of the oldest continuous cultures on the planet, with human settlements in Australia dated to around 49,000 years ago. However, the British colonisation of Australia in 1788 devastated Indigenous communities, with their numbers falling from around 750,000 to just 93,000 by 1900. This was due to introduced diseases, violent conflict, and policies of forced assimilation, which many scholars argue constituted a genocide. Today, Indigenous Australians continue to face challenges, with high rates of incarceration and the removal of children from their families, and the loss of their languages, with all but 13 remaining Indigenous languages now considered endangered.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Number of people who self-identified as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander in the 2021 Australian Census | 812,728 (3.2% of the total population of Australia) |
| Number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages used at home according to the 2022 Australian census | 167 |
| Number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages used at the time of European colonisation | 250 |
| Number of remaining Indigenous languages that are not considered endangered | 13 |
| Number of massacres of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people recorded as of 2020 | 311 |
| Number of Aboriginal people killed in the massacres | 12,361 |
| Estimated number of Aboriginal Australians and colonists killed during the frontier wars | 40,000 Aboriginal people and 2,000-2,500 colonists |
| Estimated Indigenous population prior to European settlement | 318,000 to more than 3,000,000 |
| Estimated Aboriginal population when Britain established its first Australian colony in 1788 | 300,000 to more than 1 million |
| Estimated Aboriginal population in 1901 | 90,000 |
| Estimated Aboriginal population in 1900 | 93,000 |
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What You'll Learn
The arrival of the first humans in Australia
The first humans to arrive in Australia are believed to have come from a migration of Homo sapiens through Southeast Asia. These people belonged to a single genetic lineage and were the descendants of a population that originated in Africa. The migration took place during the closing stages of the Pleistocene, when sea levels were much lower than they are today, allowing people to arrive by sea. New Guinea and Tasmania were joined to the continent of Australia, and Australia and New Guinea formed a single landmass known as Sahul, connected by an extensive land bridge.
The first wave of migration may have been prompted by the eruption of Toba. If they arrived around 70,000 years ago, they could have crossed the water from Timor when the sea level was low. However, if they came later, around 50,000 years ago, they would have likely travelled through the Moluccas to New Guinea. It is uncertain how many waves of immigration contributed to the ancestors of modern Aboriginal Australians, but it is probable that rock art was part of their culture. Mineral pigments, such as ochre, provide some of the oldest evidence for human arrival, with some pieces dated to about 50,000 years old.
The earliest conclusively human remains found in Australia are those of Mungo Man LM3 and Mungo Lady, which have been dated to around 40,000 to 41,000 years ago. Isolated for millennia by rising sea levels after the last Ice Age, Australian Aboriginal peoples developed a variety of regional cultures and languages, invented distinct artistic and religious traditions, and affected the continent's environment through hunting, fire-stick farming, and possibly the introduction of the dingo.
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The impact of British colonisation
The British settlers drove Indigenous people off their lands, bringing deadly diseases such as measles, smallpox and tuberculosis, which killed thousands. Additionally, the colonisation process involved acts of genocide, including the near extermination of Aboriginal Tasmanians, mass killings during the frontier wars, and the forced removal of Indigenous children from their families, now known as the Stolen Generations. The violent dispossession of Indigenous Australians of their land and the systematic removal of children have been cited as evidence of genocidal intent.
The cultural impact of British colonisation was also significant. At the time of European colonisation, it is estimated that there were over 250 Aboriginal languages. Today, all but 13 remaining Indigenous languages are considered endangered. While Aboriginal people today mostly speak English, they have added Aboriginal phrases and words to create Australian Aboriginal English, which also has influences from Indigenous languages in its phonology and grammatical structure.
The Australian government has formally apologised for the Stolen Generations and other injustices against Indigenous Australians. However, the recognition of historical injustices has been relatively slow, and there is ongoing debate about the intent behind the actions of colonial governments and the adequacy of the legal definition of genocide in capturing the harm inflicted on Indigenous peoples.
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Genocide and frontier violence
The colonisation of Australia by Britain in 1788 had a devastating impact on Indigenous Australians, with thousands dying as British settlers drove people off their land and brought deadly diseases such as measles, smallpox and tuberculosis. The Indigenous population prior to colonisation is estimated to have been 300,000 to over one million people comprising about 600 tribes or nations and 250 languages with various dialects. By 1901, the Aboriginal population had fallen to just over 90,000 people, mainly due to disease, frontier violence and the disruption of traditional society.
There is an ongoing debate about whether the colonisation of Australia and subsequent actions by governments and individuals constituted genocide. Many scholars have argued that the colonisation and subsequent actions involved acts of genocide against Indigenous Australians, citing the near extermination of Aboriginal Tasmanians, mass killings during the frontier wars, forced removals of Indigenous children from their families (now known as the Stolen Generations), and policies of forced assimilation.
Proponents of the genocide thesis have accused their critics of denialism and ignoring the evidence of frontier massacres, violent dispossession of Indigenous Australians of their land, and the systematic removal of Aboriginal children from their families. Critics of the genocide thesis, including historians and commentators like Keith Windschuttle, have accused those arguing for genocide of fabricating evidence and writing "black armband" history that claims "much of Australian history was a disgrace".
The term frontier wars refers to the period of violent conflict between Indigenous Australians and British settlers during the colonisation of Australia. Researchers at the University of Newcastle have been mapping the massacres and, as of 2020, have mapped almost 500 places where massacres occurred, with 12,361 Aboriginal people killed and 204 colonists killed, numbering at least 311 massacres over a period of about 140 years. It is estimated that at least 40,000 Aboriginal people died during the frontier wars, with 2,000 to 2,500 settlers also killed.
In addition to the direct violence of the frontier wars, Indigenous Australians also experienced forced assimilation policies, which aimed to "improve" the lives of Indigenous people by assimilating them into white society. These policies included the removal of Indigenous children from their families, with thousands of children of mixed heritage removed and placed in institutions or white adoptive families. These children became known as the Stolen Generations, and their removal has left a legacy of trauma and loss that continues to affect Indigenous communities today.
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The Stolen Generations
The policies of the Stolen Generations had devastating intergenerational impacts on the affected communities. Survivors and their descendants experience higher rates of adverse outcomes, including poor health, mental health issues, educational gaps, and poverty. High incidences of anxiety, depression, PTSD, suicide, and alcohol abuse have been observed among the Stolen Generations, leading to unstable family situations.
The Australian government has faced significant criticism and calls for justice from survivor groups and activists. In 1997, the Bringing Them Home Royal Commission report described the removal policies as genocide, and in 1999, the federal parliament expressed "deep and sincere regret" over the removals. In 2008, the federal government issued a national apology to the Stolen Generations, but there has been ongoing criticism regarding the lack of systematic response to address the needs of survivors and their descendants.
The issue of the Stolen Generations gained international attention during the Sydney 2000 Summer Olympics, with activists setting up an "Aboriginal Tent City" to raise awareness. The internationally renowned rock group Midnight Oil also attracted media interest by performing at the Olympic closing ceremony in black sweatsuits with the word "SORRY" emblazoned on them.
The legacy of the Stolen Generations continues to be a sensitive and controversial issue in Australia, with ongoing legal and political debates surrounding reconciliation, reparations, and justice for the affected communities.
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The loss of Indigenous languages
Indigenous Australians consist of two distinct groups: the Aboriginal Australians of the mainland and many islands, including Tasmania, and the Torres Strait Islanders of the seas between Queensland and Papua New Guinea, located in Melanesia.
Before colonisation, there were over 250 Aboriginal languages in Australia. However, many of these languages were lost as colonial society broke up Indigenous cultures. Up until the 1970s, government policies banned and discouraged Aboriginal people from speaking their languages. For instance, children were barred from speaking their mother tongue at school or in Christian missions. As a result, only 60 of the original 250 languages are still considered healthy, with 110 being critically endangered.
Despite the challenges, there are ongoing efforts to preserve and revive Indigenous languages. Bilingual education is being implemented in some communities, and support exists for learning programmes for language revival and post-vernacular maintenance. Additionally, the National Indigenous Languages Survey, conducted in 2005, 2014, and 2019, helps monitor the status of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages.
While the future of Indigenous languages in Australia remains uncertain, initiatives like these provide a glimmer of hope for their preservation and revitalisation.
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Frequently asked questions
Indigenous Australians are people with familial heritage from, or recognised membership of, the various ethnic groups living within the territory of contemporary Australia prior to British colonisation. They consist of two distinct groups: the Aboriginal Australians of the mainland and many islands, including Tasmania, and the Torres Strait Islanders of the seas between Queensland and Papua New Guinea, located in Melanesia.
The time of the first human arrival in Australia is a matter of debate and ongoing investigation. The earliest conclusively human remains found in Australia, Mungo Man LM3 and Mungo Lady, have been dated to around 40,000 years ago, although Indigenous Australians have likely been living in Australia for upwards of 65,000 years.
The British colonisation of Australia and the subsequent actions of various Australian governments and individuals have been described by many scholars as acts of genocide against Indigenous Australians. Thousands died as British settlers drove people off their lands, and brought deadly diseases such as measles, smallpox and tuberculosis. The Indigenous population fell from around 750,000 to just 93,000 by 1901, mainly due to disease, frontier violence and the disruption of traditional society.
Between 1910 and the 1970s, governments, churches and welfare bodies forcibly removed many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families. Their removal was sanctioned by various government policies based on assimilationist ideologies, which have left a legacy of trauma and loss that continues to affect Indigenous communities today.
In the 2021 Australian Census, 812,728 people self-identified as being of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander origin, representing 3.2% of the total population of Australia. While there are cultural commonalities among Indigenous Australians, there is also a great diversity among different communities. Amnesty International campaigns for Indigenous Peoples' rights in Australia, including stopping the disproportionate number of Indigenous children being locked up in Australia's detention system.
