The Complex Colonial Legacy Of Belize: A Historical Overview

Belize's colonial history centres around the Maya civilisation, European exploration and settlement, and the country's independence.

The Maya civilisation spread into Belize between 1500 BC and AD 300, flourishing until about 1200. The Maya population declined in the 10th century, and the civilisation collapsed around 900 AD.

European contact began in 1502-04 when Christopher Columbus sailed along the Gulf of Honduras. British settlement began in 1638, and Britain and Spain both laid claim to the land. Spain tried to maintain a monopoly on trade and colonisation in its New World colonies, but northern European powers were attracted to the region. The British established common law and elected magistrates, and in 1798, they defeated the Spanish in the Battle of St. George's Caye.

In 1862, Belize became a British colony, and in 1871, it became a crown colony. In 1973, the country's name was changed from British Honduras to Belize, and on 21 September 1981, Belize gained independence from the United Kingdom.

The Maya Civilization

Ancient Maya Civilization

Evolution of Maya Culture

The Maya culture flourished from around 2000 BC across the southeastern corner of Mesoamerica, which can be divided into three sub-regions: Southern Highlands, Central Lowlands, and Northern Lowlands. Each sub-region offered different resources and contributed to the development of distinct Maya societies.

Maya Civilization Timeline

• Olmec: 1200-1000 BC
• Early Pre-Classic Maya: 1800-900 BC
• Middle Pre-Classic Maya: 900-300 BC
• Late Pre-Classic Maya: 300 BC - AD 250
• Early Classic Maya: AD 250-600
• Late Classic Maya: AD 600-900
• Post-Classic Maya: AD 900-1500
• Colonial Period: AD 1500-1800
• Independent Mexico: AD 1821 to the present

Maya Achievements

Spanish Conquest and Decline of Maya Civilization

In the 16th century, with the arrival of Spanish conquistadors, the Maya civilization began to decline. The Spanish conquest was a brutal and prolonged campaign, as the lack of a central ruler among the Maya city-states meant that each had to be taken and controlled individually. The last Maya states were finally subdued in 1697, marking the end of Maya self-rule.

Legacy of Maya Civilization

Today, the Maya people continue to be a vibrant and thriving culture in Belize, accounting for about 11% of the country's population. They preserve their language, traditions, and way of life through agriculture, hunting, and the production of arts and crafts. The rich legacy of the Maya civilization continues to fascinate scholars and attracts tourists from all over the world.

European Colonisation

The colonial history of Belize centres around European colonisation, specifically by the British, and the country's path to independence.

Early European Exploration and Settlement

European contact with Belize began in 1502-04 when Christopher Columbus sailed along the Gulf of Honduras. The first recorded European incursions in the region were made by Spanish conquistadors and missionaries in the 16th century. However, the Spanish never settled in the region, and Britain and Spain both laid claim to the land.

In the 17th century, English settlers began exploring Belize, and British buccaneers and logwood cutters settled on the inhospitable coast. The population grew with the addition of disbanded British soldiers and sailors after the capture of Jamaica from Spain in 1655. The settlement, whose main activity was logwood cutting, had a troubled history during the next 150 years, facing numerous incursions from neighbouring Spanish settlements.

British Honduras

In 1763, the Treaty of Paris allowed British settlers to engage in the logwood industry, and in 1783, the Treaty of Versailles affirmed the boundaries set by the Treaty of Paris. In 1786, the Convention of London extended these boundaries to include the right to cut mahogany. After the Battle of St. George's Caye in 1798, in which the Spanish were defeated, British control over the settlement was augmented.

In 1825, Mexico was officially recognised by Britain, and in 1826, it abandoned any claims over Belize. In 1854, a constitution formally created a Legislative Assembly of 18 members, who were elected by a limited franchise, and the next year, the Laws in Force Act validated the settlers' land titles. In 1862, Belize became a British colony, known as British Honduras, ruled by a governor who was subordinate to the governor of Jamaica. In 1871, Belize became a crown colony, and the Legislative Assembly was abolished.

Independence

In 1950, the People's United Party (PUP) emerged as the dominant political party and led the independence movement. In 1954, universal adult suffrage was introduced, and in 1961, the Ministerial System was adopted, leading to self-government in 1964. On 1st June 1973, the country's name was changed from British Honduras to Belize. Independence was achieved on 21st September 1981, and a new independence constitution was introduced.

Belize's independence was recognised by the whole world except for Guatemala, which retains a territorial claim against Belize, stemming from its rights as a former colony of Spain. The Belize-Guatemala territorial dispute is currently before the International Court of Justice at The Hague.

The Slave Trade

The slaves' experience in Belize, though different from that on plantations in other colonies in the region, was nevertheless oppressive. A report published in 1820 stated that slaves were frequently the objects of "extreme inhumanity". The chaplain of the settlement reported "instances, many instances, of horrible barbarity" against the slaves. The slaves' own actions, including suicide, abortion, murder, escape, and revolt, suggest how they viewed their situation. In the 18th century, many slaves escaped to Yucatán, and in the early 19th century, a steady flow went to Guatemala and down the coast to Honduras. Some runaways established communities, such as one near the Sibun River, that offered refuge to others.

The act to abolish slavery throughout the British colonies, passed in 1833, was intended to avoid drastic social changes by implementing a five-year transition period. The act included generous measures for slave owners, such as a system of "apprenticeship" that extended their control over former slaves, and compensation for their loss of property. After 1838, the masters of the settlement continued to control the country for over a century by denying access to land and limiting the economic freedom of the freed slaves.

Independence

Belize, formerly known as British Honduras, was a British colony until it achieved independence on 21 September 1981. However, the road to independence was not without its challenges.

The Road to Independence

Belize's independence was marked by a unique international campaign against the territorial claims of neighbouring Guatemala. Guatemala had long asserted sovereignty over all or part of Belizean territory, and this dispute persisted even as Belize moved towards independence. In fact, Guatemala refused to recognise Belize as a sovereign nation after independence, claiming that Belize rightfully belonged to Guatemala.

In the years leading up to independence, Belizean leaders advocated for self-governance and independence on the international stage. They sought support from various organisations, including the Commonwealth of Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the United Nations, and other Latin American governments. By 1980, Belize had gained the support of several countries, isolating Guatemala in its claim. In November 1980, the United Nations passed a resolution demanding Belize's independence.

Despite these efforts, a final agreement with Guatemala could not be reached before independence. A proposal called the Heads of Agreement was initialled in March 1981, but ultraright political forces in Guatemala opposed it, and the Guatemalan government refused to ratify the agreement.

Belize was granted independence on 21 September 1981, becoming the last British colony on the American mainland to gain independence. King Charles III remains the monarch and head of state of Belize, making it the only mainland Central American country within the Commonwealth realm.

Belize's independence was celebrated with national holidays and remains a significant event in the country's history. The anniversary of the Battle of St. George's Caye, a key event in resisting Spanish colonisation, is also commemorated as a national holiday.

Post-Independence Challenges

Even after independence, the border dispute with Guatemala remained unresolved. In the early 2000s, border tensions continued, and Guatemala maintained its claim over Belizean territory. In 2018, both countries agreed to submit the territorial dispute to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) for a final resolution. Referendums were held in both countries, with voters in each country overwhelmingly supporting the referral to the ICJ. As of 2023, the ICJ proceedings are ongoing, with written submissions completed and oral arguments from each country's legal teams expected next.

Guatemalan Territorial Claims

Guatemala's territorial claim on Belize is a long-standing dispute that has its roots in the colonial era. Guatemala has claimed all or part of Belize, its small English-speaking neighbour, since it gained independence in 1821. The dispute centres around the interpretation of several treaties signed between Britain and Spain during the late 1600s and 1700s regarding territories in the Americas. While both nations agreed that modern-day Belize was under Spanish sovereignty, British settlers were allowed to use the land for specific purposes and often expanded beyond the agreed boundaries.

In the 1800s, as the Spanish Empire was losing its grip on Central America, newly independent Guatemala claimed sovereignty over Belize as an "inheritance" from Spain. This claim was rejected by Britain, which led to a series of negotiations and treaties throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1859, the Wyke-Aycinena Treaty was signed between Guatemala and Britain, recognising British sovereignty over Belize and forming the modern-day boundary lines. However, tensions flared up again in the following decades, with Guatemala periodically renewing its claims and massing troops on the border.

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, negotiations between the two countries broke down, and Guatemala periodically threatened to invade Belize. Britain maintained a military presence in Belize to deter any potential invasion. Belize gained independence in 1981, but the territorial dispute remained unresolved. In 1999, Guatemala shifted its stance back to inheriting claims from the Spanish Empire and asserted that it was owed more than half of Belize's land mass.

To resolve the dispute, Belize and Guatemala agreed to hold simultaneous referendums in 2018 and 2019, respectively, to decide whether to refer the issue to the International Court of Justice (ICJ). The referendums passed in both countries, and as of 2022, both nations are presenting their cases to the ICJ, with a ruling not expected until 2025 at the earliest. While the ICJ is likely to rule in Belize's favour, the dispute has had a significant impact on bilateral relations and has led to a series of confrontations between the two countries.

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