The Many Names Of Austria, Hungary, And Croatia

The Austro-Hungarian Empire, also known as the Dual Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe that existed from 1867 to 1918. It was formed through a compromise between the Austrian and Hungarian empires, creating a union of two sovereign states with a single monarch. The Empire included what are now Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and parts of Poland, Romania, Ukraine, and Italy.

Within the Empire, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia was an autonomous region under the Hungarian crown. The Croatian-Hungarian Settlement of 1868 combined Croatia and Slavonia into this autonomous kingdom, which was a significant player in the Empire's internal politics.

The idea of expanding the Dual Monarchy into a triple monarchy by creating a South Slavic kingdom was discussed during the later years of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This would have likely taken the form of an expanded Croatia, as there was already an autonomous Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia within the Empire.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire

The empire was a military and diplomatic alliance consisting of two sovereign states, with a single monarch who was titled both Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was the last phase in the constitutional evolution of the Habsburg monarchy, which had ruled the Austrian Empire since 1804.

The Dual Monarchy was geographically the second-largest country in Europe and the third most populous, and was among the ten most populous countries worldwide. It was one of Europe's major powers, with the fourth-largest machine-building industry in the world.

The empire was made up of the Austrian Empire ("Lands Represented in the Imperial Council", or Cisleithania) in the western and northern half, and the Kingdom of Hungary ("Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen", or Transleithania) in the eastern half. The Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia was an autonomous region under the Hungarian crown, and after 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina came under Austro-Hungarian joint military and civilian rule.

The Dual Monarchy

Under the terms of the Ausgleich, Hungary gained full internal autonomy and a responsible ministry, while the empire remained a single great state for purposes of war and foreign affairs. Franz Joseph surrendered his domestic prerogatives in Hungary but maintained control over common ministries of foreign affairs, defence, and finance. The two kingdoms shared a cabinet that governed these common areas, with each kingdom maintaining its own parliament and prime minister.

Despite its power and influence, the Dual Monarchy faced significant challenges due to the diverse ethnic and linguistic groups within its borders. Language disputes, nationalist movements, and ethnic tensions strained the unity of the empire. Additionally, the outbreak of World War I in 1914 further exacerbated these issues, leading to uprisings, strikes, and a loss of popular support for the war effort. Ultimately, the Dual Monarchy collapsed in 1918, with Hungary terminating its union with Austria and both kingdoms becoming separate successor states.

The Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

The unification of the three kingdoms started gaining popularity in the 14th century and was originally used in the title of the Ban of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia in the medieval Croatian Kingdom. The first usage of the term "Triune Kingdom" was in 1527 by the Habsburgs, to make the title of Croatia, Dalmatia and Slavonia seem grander. After 1867, Croatia and Slavonia were within the Hungarian half of Austria-Hungary and were united in 1868 as the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, where the name Triune Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia became official. However, Dalmatia, being located in the Austrian half, still remained de facto separate.

The Croatian–Hungarian Settlement of 1868 confirmed Croatia–Slavonia's historic, eight-centuries-old relationship with Hungary and perpetuated the division of the Croat lands, for both Dalmatia and Istria remained under Austrian administration. The agreement granted the Croats autonomy over their internal affairs. The Croatian Ban would now be nominated by the joint Croatian–Hungarian government led by the Hungarian Prime Minister and appointed by the king. Areas of "common" concern to Hungarians and Croats included finance, currency matters, commercial policy, the post office, and the railroad. Croatian became the official language of Croatia's government, and Croatian representatives discussing "common" affairs before the Croatian–Hungarian diet were permitted to use Croatian.

The modern University of Zagreb was founded in 1874. The Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts and Matica Hrvatska were the main cultural institutions in the kingdom. In 1911, the main cultural institution in the Kingdom of Dalmatia, Matica dalmatinska, merged with Matica hrvatska. Vijenac was one of the most important cultural magazines in the kingdom. The building of the Croatian National Theatre in Zagreb was opened in 1895. The Croatian National Theatre in Osijek was established in 1907. The Royal Croatian Home Guard was the military of the Kingdom.

The Croatian-Ottoman Wars

The area encompassing Austria, Hungary, and Croatia was historically known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire or Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, and it existed from 1867 to 1918. Now, onto the Croatian-Ottoman Wars.

The Hundred Years' Croatian-Ottoman War (1493-1593)

The Hundred Years' Croatian-Ottoman War was a prolonged conflict marked by periods of low-intensity border warfare and major conquest campaigns by the Ottomans. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 allowed the Ottoman Empire to devote more troops to their campaigns in the Balkans, posing a significant threat to the Kingdom of Croatia. Despite valiant defence efforts, Croatian forces suffered several defeats, including the loss of Knin and Skradin in 1522 and the Battle of Klis in 1524. The Battle of Mohács in 1526 resulted in the collapse of the Kingdom of Hungary, and Croatia subsequently came under the rule of the Habsburg Monarchy.

The Long War (1593-1606)

The Long War, also known as the Long Turkish War, was triggered by the decisive Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Sisak in 1593, which marked the end of the Hundred Years' Croatian-Ottoman War. This battle halted Ottoman expansion in the region and resulted in a prolonged conflict that lasted until 1606.

The Great Turkish War (1683-1699)

The Great Turkish War was a major conflict between the Ottoman Empire and a coalition of European powers, including the Habsburg Monarchy, which controlled Croatia at the time. This war ended in a decisive victory for the European coalition, marking a significant turning point in the Ottoman Empire's influence in Central Europe.

Austro-Turkish Wars (17th and 18th Centuries)

In addition to the wars mentioned above, there were several Austro-Turkish Wars in the 17th and 18th centuries, including:

• Austro-Turkish War (1663-1664)
• Austro-Turkish War (1716-1718)
• Austro-Turkish War (1787-1791)

These conflicts were part of a broader struggle between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg Monarchy, with Croatia being a key theatre of war due to its geographical proximity to the Ottoman borders.

The Croatian War of Independence

The area of Austria-Hungary and Croatia was historically known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire or Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The empire was a dual monarchy established in 1867 and included what are now Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina, and parts of Poland, Romania, Ukraine, and Italy.

The war was a result of rising nationalism in the 1980s, which led to the dissolution of Yugoslavia. In the late 1980s, the more prosperous republics of SR Slovenia and SR Croatia wanted to move towards decentralization and democracy, while SR Serbia, headed by Slobodan Milošević, adhered to centralism and single-party rule.

In February 1990, Jovan Rašković founded the Serb Democratic Party (SDS) in Knin, whose program aimed to change the regional division of Croatia to be aligned with ethnic Serb interests. In April and May 1990, the first free elections in Croatia and Slovenia were held, resulting in the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), led by Franjo Tuđman, winning the poll.

In August 1990, an unrecognized mono-ethnic referendum was held in regions with a substantial Serb population, which would later become known as the Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK). This was an attempt to counter changes made to the constitution. The Croatian government sent police forces to police stations in Serb-populated areas to seize their weapons.

In March 1991, the Serbs attacked Croatian police units in Pakrac, and one Josip Jović is widely reported as the first police officer killed by Serb forces as part of the war, during the Plitvice Lakes incident in late March 1991.

On May 19, 1991, the Croatian authorities held a referendum on independence with the option of remaining in Yugoslavia as a looser union. Serb local authorities issued calls for a boycott, which were largely followed by Croatian Serbs. The referendum passed with 94% in favor.

Croatia declared independence and dissolved its association with Yugoslavia on June 25, 1991. The European Community and the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe urged Croatian authorities to place a three-month moratorium on the decision.

In July 1991, the JNA forces were involved in operations against predominantly Croat areas. By early August, large areas of Banovina were overrun by Serb forces.

In August 1991, the Battle of Vukovar began, resulting in the city being almost completely devastated, with 15,000 houses destroyed. Death toll estimates for Vukovar as a result of the siege range from 1,798 to 5,000.

In October 1991, the Yugoslav Navy renewed its blockade of the main ports of Croatia. On October 5, President Tuđman made a speech in which he called upon the whole population to mobilize and defend against "Greater Serbian imperialism" pursued by the Serb-led JNA, Serbian paramilitary formations, and rebel Serb forces.

In November 1991, the Vukovar massacre took place, with survivors being transported to prison camps such as Ovčara and Velepromet.

In 1995, Croatia launched two major offensives known as Operation Flash and Operation Storm, which effectively ended the war in its favor. The remaining United Nations Transitional Authority for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium (UNTAES) zone was peacefully reintegrated into Croatia by 1998.

The war ended with Croatian victory, as it achieved the goals it had declared at the beginning of the war: independence and preservation of its borders. Approximately 21–25% of Croatia's economy was ruined, with an estimated US$37 billion in damaged infrastructure, lost output, and refugee-related costs. Over 20,000 people were killed in the war, and refugees were displaced on both sides.

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