Exploring The Unique Meaning Of "Us" In Bolivian Culture

Bolivia and the US have had a tumultuous relationship since Bolivia gained independence from Spain in 1849. While the two countries have collaborated on several issues, including human rights, entrepreneurship, and cultural and educational initiatives, they have also experienced periods of tension and conflict. The US has provided aid to Bolivia, including support for natural disasters and the COVID-19 pandemic, and the two countries have a bilateral trade relationship, with the US being Bolivia's fifth-largest import market and eleventh-largest export market. However, there have also been instances where the Bolivian government has expelled US officials and agencies, and the US has expressed concerns about Bolivia's production of cocaine and political decisions, such as the expulsion of the US ambassador in 2008.

Diplomatic relations

Bolivia and the United States have had a complex diplomatic relationship since establishing diplomatic relations in 1849 following Bolivia's independence from Spain. The relationship has been strained at times due to differences in political ideologies and policies, particularly regarding coca production and drug control. However, the two countries continue to work together in various areas, including advancing human rights, entrepreneurship, and cultural and educational initiatives.

Historical Overview

Bolivia and the US established diplomatic relations in 1849, but the relationship has been marked by periods of tension and rapprochement. One of the earliest tensions arose in 1951 when the socialist and nationalist Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario (MNR) took power in Bolivia, leading to a CIA-supported coup d'état in 1971. The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) financed and trained the Bolivian military dictatorship during this period.

Expulsion of US Agencies and Officials

Beginning in 2008, the Bolivian government's decisions to expel the US ambassador, law enforcement agencies, and development cooperation agencies, including the US Agency for International Development (USAID), strained bilateral relations. The Bolivian government accused USAID of attempting to undermine it by supporting the opposition. The US denied these allegations and regretted the decision, citing the negative impact on Bolivian citizens who benefited from collaborative work in various sectors.

Coca Production and Drug Control

Coca production and drug control have been a significant source of contention between the two countries. Bolivia is the world's third-largest producer of cocaine, and its production exceeds its own sanctioned limit. In 2017, Bolivia changed the General Law on Coca, increasing licit coca production. The US has been critical of Bolivia's approach, with former President George W. Bush placing the country on a counter-narcotics blacklist in 2008.

Recent Developments

Despite the challenges, the US and Bolivia have continued to work together in various areas. The US provided support to Bolivia during natural disasters, such as wildfires in the Amazonian region, and offered humanitarian assistance to Venezuelan refugees. Additionally, the US has been a significant trade partner for Bolivia, with about $1 billion in bilateral goods trade in 2022.

In conclusion, the diplomatic relations between the US and Bolivia have been complex and dynamic, with periods of both tension and cooperation. While ideological differences and policy disagreements have created challenges, the two countries continue to collaborate in specific sectors and maintain a respectful relationship with a focus on advancing shared goals.

Drug policy

Bolivia is the third-largest producer of cocaine in the world and has been a significant grower of coca, the raw material from which cocaine is produced, since the 1980s. The country's narcotics trade has had a number of negative side effects, including trafficking and corruption.

In 1983, Bolivia committed to a five-year program to reduce coca production and established the Coca Eradication Directorate under the Ministry of Agriculture, Campesino Affairs, and Livestock Affairs. In 1987, Bolivia and the United States signed a joint agreement that created the National Directorate for the Control of Dangerous Substances (DNCSP), allocating $72.2 million for eradication programs.

In 1988, Bolivia passed Law 1008, which made coca growing technically illegal outside a specially mandated area in the Yungas region. This law established a framework for the gradual eradication of coca cultivation in the Chapare region, with targets for eradication and compensation for farmers who eradicated their coca plants.

In 1989, a four-year government eradication campaign sought to convert 55% of coca areas into legal crops, offering coffee and citrus fruits as alternative crops. However, these crops were harder to sell and transport than coca, and the campaign faced resistance from coca growers.

In 1997, under pressure from the United States, Bolivia's President Hugo Banzer developed "Plan Dignidad" to counter the drug trade, focusing on eradication, interdiction, countering money laundering, and implementing social programs to prevent drug addiction.

In 2008, President Evo Morales gave the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) three months to leave the country, accusing them of fomenting the drug trade. However, Morales maintained relations with the US government on counter-narcotics issues, and Bolivia's strategy to reduce coca cultivation has led to a slight diplomatic thaw with the US.

Bolivia has a current law that prohibits drug use and punishes possession for personal use with internment and forced treatment. The country is trying to change the international legal regime for coca leaves, which have been chewed and used for traditional and medicinal purposes for centuries.

Economic relations

The United States is an important trade partner for Bolivia, with about $1 billion in bilateral goods trade in 2022. The United States is Bolivia's fifth-largest import market and eleventh-largest export market. US exports to Bolivia include mineral oils/fuels, plastic materials, food preparations, halogenated olefins, heavy machinery, automobiles, and pharmaceuticals. Meanwhile, US imports from Bolivia include raw tin, mineral ores, cereals, nuts, and tungsten.

Bolivia generally allows foreign direct investment, and an investment promotion law adopted in 2014 guarantees equal treatment for national and foreign firms. However, the law stipulates that public investment has priority over private investment, and the Bolivian government will determine which sectors require private investment. Bolivia abrogated its Bilateral Investment Treaties with the US and multiple other countries in 2012. From 2008 to 2016, the Bolivian government nationalized several companies that had been privatized in the 1990s. US foreign direct investment in Bolivia is about $430 million, mainly in the oil, gas, and manufacturing sectors. However, weak judicial recourse, corruption, and unclear investment incentives make investment in Bolivia challenging.

The US and Bolivia have a history of economic relations dating back to the 1960s, with the US providing development assistance through USAID. Over the years, USAID has spent nearly $2 billion in collaboration with the Bolivian government on various programs, including education, health, agriculture, food security, alternative development, economic development, and environmental programs. However, in 2013, Bolivian President Evo Morales expelled USAID from the country, accusing it of conspiring against his government.

Despite the expulsion of USAID, the US continues to provide development assistance to Bolivia. In Fiscal Year 2021, the US provided $440,000 to support Bolivia's response to natural disasters, including wildfires in the Amazonian region. The US also provided $495,000 in humanitarian assistance through international organizations to support Venezuelans fleeing economic turmoil and their host communities.

Bolivia is a developing country and the second-poorest in South America. Its main economic resources include agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, and goods such as textiles, clothing, refined metals, and refined petroleum. Bolivia is geologically rich, with mines producing tin, silver, lithium, and copper. The country is also a major producer of coca plants and refined cocaine.

Bolivia has experienced significant economic growth under the presidency of Evo Morales from 2006 to 2019, with per capita GDP doubling during this period. However, Bolivia's economic growth has been accompanied by accusations of democratic backsliding, with Morales being accused of authoritarianism and undermining democratic institutions.

Aid and development

Bolivia is a developing country and the second-poorest in South America. Despite this, it has slashed poverty rates and now has one of the fastest-growing economies on the continent in terms of GDP.

The United States has provided aid to Bolivia since 1964 through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). USAID has spent nearly $2 billion in collaboration with the Government of Bolivia on education, health, agriculture, food security, alternative development, economic development, and environment programs. In 2011, USAID's budget was $26.7 million.

In 2021, the United States provided $440,000 to support Bolivia's response to natural disasters, including wildfires in the Amazonian region. The US also provided $495,000 in humanitarian assistance through international organizations to support the influx of Venezuelans fleeing political and economic turmoil, as well as their host communities.

In 2021, the US donated 5,750,820 safe and effective COVID-19 vaccine doses to Bolivia, including 4,742,820 Pfizer and 1,008,000 J&J doses.

The US is an important trade partner for Bolivia, with about $1 billion in bilateral goods trade in 2022. US exports to Bolivia include mineral oils/fuels, plastic materials, food preparations, halogenated olefins, heavy machinery, automobiles, and pharmaceuticals. US imports from Bolivia include raw tin, mineral ores, cereals, nuts, and tungsten.

US foreign direct investment in Bolivia is about $430 million, mainly in the oil and gas and manufacturing sectors. However, weak judicial recourse, corruption, and unclear investment incentives make investment in Bolivia challenging.

Bolivia is the third-largest producer of cocaine in the world and produces well above its sanctioned limit of 22,000 hectares. In 2017, Bolivia changed the General Law on Coca, increasing licit coca production from 12,000 hectares to 22,000 hectares.

The US has provided counter-narcotics aid to Bolivia, but this has been a source of tension between the two countries. In 2008, Bolivian Vice President Alvaro Garcia Linera accused the US Embassy of using aid programs to fund the government's political opponents. In 2013, Bolivian President Evo Morales expelled the USAID Program, alleging that it was attempting to undermine the government by supporting the opposition.

Despite these challenges, the US maintains a strong and respectful relationship with the Bolivian people, working to advance human rights, entrepreneurship, and cultural and educational initiatives.

Political criticism

In 2013, the Bolivian president, Evo Morales, expelled the US Agency for International Development (USAID), which had been operating in Bolivia since 1964. The US government denied the Bolivian government's allegations that USAID was attempting to undermine it by supporting the opposition. Bolivia also expelled Ambassador Philip S. Goldberg, accusing him of conspiring against democracy and seeking the division of Bolivia. The US, in turn, expelled Gustavo Guzman, the Bolivian ambassador to Washington. Guzman accused the US of treating Bolivia like a "banana republic".

In 2013, Morales' plane was prevented from returning to Bolivia from Russia, as several European countries closed their airspace to his aircraft based on rumours that US whistleblower Edward Snowden was on board. Morales accused the US of pressuring European countries to prevent his passage home.

In 2019, Morales resigned as President following accusations of fraud in the general election. Morales had been criticised for attempting to run for an unconstitutional fourth term in office. After Morales' resignation, relations with the US improved under the interim government of Jeanine Áñez, and a temporary ambassador to the US was named for the first time in over a decade. However, relations deteriorated again after Áñez and several of her cabinet ministers were arrested in 2021. The US called for their release, and the Arce administration accused the US of interfering in Bolivia's internal affairs.

The US has also been criticised for its involvement in Bolivia's internal affairs during the country's history of military dictatorships. The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) financed and trained the Bolivian military dictatorship in the 1960s, and the revolutionary Che Guevara was killed by a team of CIA officers and members of the Bolivian Army in 1967.

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