How Allies Prevented Germany's Annexation Of Austria

The Anschluss, or the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany, was the first act of territorial aggression by the Nazi regime. The Allies' response to the Anschluss was only verbal and moderate, and no military confrontation took place. The strongest verbal protest came from the government of Mexico. The British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, noted that Britain had no treaty obligations with Austria and that nothing could have stopped the annexation unless Britain and other countries were willing to use force.

The Allies' failure to intervene

Lack of Treaty Enforcement

The annexation of Austria by Germany on March 12, 1938, was a clear violation of the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which expressly forbade the unification of the two countries. However, the Allies failed to enforce these treaties and punish Germany for its breach, which was an act of appeasement. This allowed Adolf Hitler to continue his expansionist policies without consequence.

Diplomatic Isolation of Austria

Austria found itself diplomatically isolated in the lead-up to the Anschluss. The French and British had accepted the unification of Austria and Germany as inevitable, and even Benito Mussolini, who initially supported Austrian independence, drew closer to Hitler in 1935-36. This isolation left Austria vulnerable to German aggression with little hope of outside support.

Failure to Act on Intelligence

Hitler's intentions to annex Austria were well-known, as he had expressed them in his book "Mein Kampf" and through his support for Austrian Nazis. The Allies had intelligence on Hitler's plans, yet they failed to act decisively to prevent the annexation. This inaction sent a message of weakness and encouraged Hitler to pursue further aggression.

Lack of Military Response

When Hitler invaded Austria, the Allies did not respond with military force. They issued only verbal protests and moderate responses, such as the loudest verbal protest coming from the government of Mexico. This lack of a strong military response emboldened Hitler and signaled that the Allies were unwilling to confront him directly.

Internal Political Considerations

The British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, noted that Britain had no treaty obligations with Austria, and thus there was little incentive to intervene militarily. Additionally, Winston Churchill, then a member of Parliament, warned that the Allies needed to take "effective measures" to respond to Germany's aggression, but his calls for action went unheeded.

In conclusion, the Allies' failure to intervene in the Anschluss was a result of a combination of factors, including a lack of treaty enforcement, diplomatic isolation of Austria, failure to act on intelligence, and internal political considerations. This inaction had far-reaching consequences and contributed to the escalation of World War II.

The Munich Agreement

The agreement was the result of a series of events that started with the success of Nazi Germany in absorbing Austria into Germany proper in March 1938. This event is known as the Anschluss. After the Anschluss, Hitler looked covetously at Czechoslovakia, where about three million people in the Sudetenland were of German origin. In April, he discussed with Wilhelm Keitel, the head of the German Armed Forces High Command, the political and military aspects of "Case Green", the code name for the envisaged takeover of the Sudetenland. A surprise attack was rejected because the result would have been "a hostile world opinion which could lead to a critical situation". Instead, Hitler decided to engage in a period of political agitation by Germans inside Czechoslovakia, accompanied by diplomatic squabbling, which would either build up an excuse for war or produce the occasion for a lightning offensive after some "incident" of German creation.

Hitler continued to make inflammatory speeches demanding that Germans in Czechoslovakia be reunited with their homeland. War seemed imminent. Neither France nor Britain felt prepared to defend Czechoslovakia, and both were anxious to avoid a military confrontation with Germany at almost any cost. In France, the Popular Front government had ended, and on 8 April 1938, Édouard Daladier formed a new cabinet without Socialist participation or Communist support. On 12 April, Le Temps, whose foreign policy was controlled by the Foreign Ministry, published an article by Joseph Barthelemy, a professor at the Paris Law Faculty, in which he scrutinized the Franco-Czechoslovak treaty of alliance of 1924 and concluded that France was not obliged to go to war to save Czechoslovakia. Earlier, on 22 March, The Times of London had stated in a leading article that Great Britain could not undertake a war to preserve Czech sovereignty over the Sudeten Germans without first ascertaining their wishes.

On 28–29 April 1938, Daladier met with British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain in London to discuss the situation. Chamberlain argued that Prague should be urged to make territorial concessions to Germany, as he was unable to see how Hitler could be prevented from destroying Czechoslovakia altogether if such were his intention (which Chamberlain doubted). Both the French and British leadership believed that peace could only be saved by the transfer of the Sudeten German areas from Czechoslovakia.

In mid-September, Chamberlain offered to go to Hitler's retreat at Berchtesgaden to discuss the situation personally with the Führer. Hitler agreed to take no military action without further discussion, and Chamberlain agreed to try to persuade his cabinet and the French to accept the results of a plebiscite in the Sudetenland. Daladier and his foreign minister, Georges-Étienne Bonnet, then went to London, where a joint proposal was prepared stipulating that all areas with a population that was more than 50% Sudeten German be turned over to Germany. The Czechoslovaks were not consulted. The Czechoslovak government initially rejected the proposal but was forced to accept it on 21 September.

On 22 September, Chamberlain flew to Germany and met Hitler at Bad Godesberg, where he was dismayed to learn that Hitler had stiffened his demands. Hitler now wanted the Sudetenland occupied by the German army and the Czechoslovaks evacuated from the area by 28 September. Chamberlain agreed to submit the new proposal to the Czechoslovaks, who rejected it, as did the British cabinet and the French. On 24 September, the French ordered a partial mobilization, and the Czechoslovaks ordered a general mobilization. Czechoslovakia had one of the world's best-equipped armies, with 47 divisions, of which 37 were for the German frontier, and the mostly mountainous line of that frontier was strongly fortified. On the German side, the final version of "Case Green", as approved by Hitler on 30 May, showed 39 divisions for operations against Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovaks were ready to fight but could not win alone.

In a last-minute effort to avoid war, Chamberlain proposed that a four-power conference be convened immediately to settle the dispute. Hitler agreed, and on 29 September, Hitler, Chamberlain, Daladier, and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini met in Munich. The meeting started shortly before 1 pm. Hitler could not conceal his anger that, instead of entering the Sudetenland as a liberator at the head of his army, he had to abide by the three Powers' arbitration. Nevertheless, Mussolini introduced a written plan that was accepted by all as the Munich Agreement. The plan was almost identical to the Godesberg proposal: the German army was to complete the occupation of the Sudetenland by 10 October, and an international commission would decide the future of other disputed areas. Czechoslovakia was informed by Britain and France that it could either resist Germany alone or submit to the prescribed annexations. The Czechoslovak government chose to submit.

Before leaving Munich, Chamberlain and Hitler signed a paper declaring their mutual desire to resolve differences through consultation to assure peace. Both Daladier and Chamberlain returned home to jubilant welcoming crowds relieved that the threat of war had passed, and Chamberlain told the British public that he had achieved "peace with honour. I believe it is peace for our time". His words were immediately challenged by his greatest critic, Winston Churchill, who declared, "You were given the choice between war and dishonour. You chose dishonour and you will have war."

The Anschluss

The Background

The idea of a union between Austria and Germany (Anschluss) had been around since the unification of Germany in 1871, which excluded Austria. Support for the union grew after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, which left Austria without most of the territories it had ruled for centuries and amid an economic crisis. The new Republic of German-Austria attempted to unite with Germany, but the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain expressly forbade this.

By the 1920s, the proposal for a union had strong support in both Austria and Germany, particularly from those on the political left and centre in Austria. However, this popularity faded over time, although the idea remained in Austrian political discourse. Support for unification came mainly from the belief that Austria, stripped of its imperial land, was not economically viable.

Hitler's Rise to Power

When Adolf Hitler rose to power in Germany in 1933, the desire for unification became associated with the Nazis. For them, it was an integral part of the "Heim ins Reich" ("back home to the realm") concept, which aimed to incorporate as many Volksdeutsche (ethnic Germans outside Germany) as possible into a "Greater Germany".

Hitler, himself an Austrian German, had written in his 1925 book, Mein Kampf, that "German-Austria must return to the great German motherland". He went on to say that "common blood belongs in a common Reich".

Austrian Resistance to Annexation

In the early 1930s, the Austrian government looked to a possible customs union with Germany, but ultimately, regional patriotism was stronger than pan-German sentiment. The Austrian government, controlled by the Austrofascist Fatherland Front, opposed unification.

Engelbert Dollfuss, the Austrian chancellor, was assassinated by Austrian Nazis in July 1934 during an attempted coup. Despite this, most Austrians remained loyal to the government, and the coup failed. Dollfuss's successor, Kurt Schuschnigg, continued Dollfuss's policies and also opposed unification.

Hitler's Actions

Hitler delivered a speech at the Reichstag in May 1935, saying:

> Germany neither intends nor wishes to interfere in the internal affairs of Austria, to annex Austria or to conclude an Anschluss.

However, in early 1938, under increasing pressure from pro-unification activists, Schuschnigg announced a referendum on a possible union with Germany versus maintaining Austrian sovereignty, to be held on March 13. Hitler threatened an invasion and pressured Schuschnigg to resign. On March 11, the day before the planned referendum, the German Army crossed the border into Austria unopposed.

The Annexation

On March 12, Austrian president Wilhelm Miklas appointed Arthur Seyss-Inquart as chancellor of Austria. Seyss-Inquart was a long-time supporter of the Nazis who sought the union of all Germans in one state. The next day, Seyss-Inquart announced a new cabinet filled with Austrian Nazis.

On March 13, Seyss-Inquart signed the "Reunification of Austria with Germany" law, formally incorporating Austria into Nazi Germany. Austria was now a province of Nazi Germany, initially referred to as Ostmark.

International Reaction

The Allies were committed to upholding the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which specifically prohibited the union of Austria and Germany. However, their reaction was only verbal and moderate, and no military confrontation took place. The loudest verbal protest came from the government of Mexico.

Aftermath

The process of Aryanisation began, and Jews were quickly driven out of public life. By the end of 1941, 130,000 Jews had left Vienna. Those who remained eventually became victims of the Holocaust.

Austria remained part of Germany until the end of World War II, when a provisional Austrian government declared the Anschluss "null and void".

The role of appeasement

The annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany, known as the Anschluss, was an act of aggression that violated the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain. The international community's response to this violation was one of appeasement, allowing Hitler to continue his expansionist policies without consequence.

The Anschluss, which occurred on March 11-13, 1938, was the first act of territorial expansion by Nazi Germany. By annexing Austria, Hitler was able to unite all Germans in a Nazi German empire, which was a key goal of his regime. This act of aggression was a clear violation of the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which expressly forbade the unification of Austria and Germany.

Despite this violation of international treaties, the response from other European powers was one of appeasement. They did not punish Nazi Germany for its actions and instead accepted the annexation. This allowed Hitler to continue his expansionist policies unchecked. The British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, acknowledged that nothing could have stopped the annexation unless countries were willing to use force. However, he also stated that the annexation would not alter Britain's European policy, indicating a willingness to appease Hitler.

The annexation of Austria was widely popular in both Germany and Austria. Hitler's popularity reached an unprecedented peak after the annexation, as he had fulfilled the long-awaited idea of a Greater Germany. The Nazis celebrated the annexation as the fulfillment of the German people's destiny and glorified it in speeches and propaganda events. Many Austrians welcomed the annexation as they believed it would improve their economic situation and put an end to the so-called Jewish Question.

In conclusion, the role of appeasement in the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany was significant. The international community's acceptance of the annexation and failure to punish Nazi Germany for violating international treaties allowed Hitler to continue his expansionist agenda without consequence. This set a precedent for further acts of aggression, such as the invasion of Czechoslovakia, and ultimately led to the outbreak of World War II.

The Austrian resistance

The most spectacular individual group of the Austrian resistance was the one around the priest Heinrich Maier. On the one hand, this very successful Catholic resistance group wanted to revive a Habsburg monarchy after the war (as planned by Winston Churchill and later fought by Joseph Stalin) and very successfully passed on plans and production facilities for V-2 rockets, Tiger tanks and aircraft (Messerschmitt Bf 109, Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet, etc.) to the Allies. With the location sketches of the production facilities, the Allied bombers were able to carry out precise air strikes and thus protect residential areas. In contrast to many other German resistance groups, the Maier group informed very early about the mass murder of Jews through its contacts with the Semperit factory near Auschwitz.

Another sign of the Austrian resistance was "O5", where the 5 stands for E and OE is the abbreviation of Österreich. This sign may be seen at the Stephansdom in Vienna.

From March to November 1938, 130,000 people emigrated legally or escaped illegally from Austria. Among the most famous emigrating artists, there were the composers Arnold Schönberg and Robert Stolz, the film-makers Leon Askin, Fritz Lang, Josef von Sternberg, Billy Wilder, Max Reinhardt, the actors Karl Farkas and Gerhard Bronner and the writers Hermann Broch, Robert Musil, Anton Kuh and Franz Werfel.

The Austrian historian Helmut Konrad has estimated that out of an Austrian population of 6.8 million in 1938, there were around 100,000 Austrian opponents to the regime who were convicted and imprisoned, and an Austrian membership of the Nazi Party of 700,000.

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