New Nations Born From Austria-Hungary's Territory

The Austro-Hungarian Empire, also known as the Habsburg Monarchy, was a major power in Europe and the third most populous country on the continent. After its dissolution in 1918, the empire's territories were divided among several newly created countries, including Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, and Poland. Additionally, the Kingdom of Romania and the Kingdom of Italy had their territorial demands recognised by the victorious powers in 1920.

The Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia

The Croatian parliament, elected in a questionable manner, confirmed the subordination of Croatia-Slavonia to Hungary in 1868 with the signing of the Hungarian-Croatian union constitution called the Nagodba (Croatian-Hungarian Settlement, known also as the Croatian-Hungarian Agreement or Hungarian-Croatian Compromise of 1868). This kingdom included parts of present-day Croatia and Serbia (eastern part of Syrmia).

The Kingdom of Hungary

Due to the Ottoman occupation of the central and southern territories of Hungary in the 16th century, the country was partitioned into three parts: Habsburg Royal Hungary, Ottoman Hungary, and the semi-independent Principality of Transylvania. The House of Habsburg held the Hungarian throne after the Battle of Mohács in 1526 continuously until 1918 and also played a key role in the liberation wars against the Ottoman Empire.

From 1867, territories connected to the Hungarian crown were incorporated into Austria-Hungary under the name of Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen. The monarchy ended with the deposition of the last king, Charles IV, in 1918, after which Hungary became a republic. The kingdom was nominally restored during the "Regency" of 1920–1946, ending under Soviet occupation in 1946.

The Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria

During the first decades of Austrian rule, Galicia was firmly governed from Vienna, and many significant reforms were carried out by a bureaucracy staffed largely by Germans and Czechs. The aristocracy was guaranteed its rights, but these rights were considerably circumscribed. The former serfs were no longer mere chattels, but became subjects of law and were granted certain personal freedoms, such as the right to marry without the lord's permission. Their labour obligations were defined and limited, and they could bypass the lords and appeal to the imperial courts for justice. The eastern-rite Uniate Church, which primarily served the Ruthenians, was renamed the Greek Catholic Church to bring it on a par with the Roman Catholic Church. Although unpopular with the aristocracy, these reforms created a reservoir of good will toward the emperor among the common folk, Polish and Ukrainian/Ruthenian alike, which lasted almost until the end of Austrian rule.

In 1866, following the Battle of Sadova and the Austrian defeat in the Austro-Prussian War, the Austro-Hungarian empire began to experience increased internal problems. In an effort to shore up support for the monarchy, Emperor Franz Joseph began negotiations for a compromise with the Magyar nobility to ensure their support. This eventually led to the Ausgleich of February 1867, which reformed the Austrian Empire into a dualist Austria-Hungary. Although the Polish and Czech plans for their parts of the monarchy to be included in the federal structure failed, a slow yet steady process of liberalisation of Austrian rule in Galicia started. Representatives of the Polish aristocracy and intelligentsia addressed the Emperor, asking for greater autonomy for Galicia, and over the course of the next several years, a number of significant concessions were made toward the establishment of Galician autonomy.

From 1873, Galicia was de facto an autonomous province of Austria-Hungary, with Polish and, to a lesser degree, Ukrainian or Ruthenian, as official languages. The Germanisation had been halted, and censorship was lifted as well. Galicia was subject to the Ciseleithanian jurisdiction of the Dual Monarchy, but the Galician Sejm and provincial administration had extensive privileges and prerogatives, especially in education, culture, and local affairs. These changes were supported by many Polish intellectuals. In spite of almost 750,000 persons emigrating across the Atlantic from 1880 to 1914, Galicia's population increased by 45% between 1869 and 1910.

During World War I, Galicia saw heavy fighting between the forces of Russia and the Central Powers. The Imperial Russian Army overran most of the region in 1914 after defeating the Austro-Hungarian Army in a chaotic frontier battle in the opening months of the war. They were in turn pushed out in the spring and summer of 1915 by a combined German and Austro-Hungarian offensive.

In late 1918, Eastern Galicia became a part of the restored Republic of Poland, which absorbed the Lemko-Rusyn Republic. The local Ukrainian population briefly declared the independence of Eastern Galicia as the West Ukrainian People's Republic. During the Polish-Soviet War, the Soviets tried to establish the puppet state of the Galician SSR in East Galicia, but the territory was then conquered by the Poles. The fate of Galicia was settled by the Peace of Riga on 18 March 1921, giving all of Galicia to the Second Polish Republic.

The Kingdom of Bohemia

Bohemia, itself, was not one of the countries created from or given territory from Austria-Hungary. However, it did become part of the newly proclaimed Habsburg Austrian Empire shortly before the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. It then became part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire from 1867 until the end of World War I, when Bohemia became the core part of the newly formed Czechoslovak Republic.

Bohemia retained its name and formal status as a separate kingdom within the Austro-Hungarian Empire until 1918. Its capital, Prague, was one of the empire's leading cities and was the imperial seat in the late 14th century and again at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries.

The kings of Bohemia, in addition to the region of Bohemia itself, also ruled over other lands belonging to the Bohemian Crown. This included, at various times, Moravia, Silesia, Lusatia, and parts of Saxony, Brandenburg, and Bavaria.

Bohemia was first subordinated to Greater Moravia in the late 9th century. It was then Christianised by Saints Cyril and Methodius, who introduced Christianity into Bohemia from Moravia in the 9th century. By the 10th century, Bohemia had been consolidated by the ruling Přemyslid dynasty. Although they became dependent on the Holy Roman Empire, the Přemyslids were able to attach Moravia to Bohemia and transform them into a viable kingdom.

Bohemia reached a new peak of political power and economic prosperity under Otakar II, who consolidated control over parts of Austria and waged wars for territory with Hungary, extending Bohemia's domain to the Adriatic Sea. However, after Otakar was killed in an invasion of Austria in 1278, Bohemia was soon reduced in size and influence once again, and the Přemyslid dynasty came to an end in 1306.

In the early 15th century, Bohemia fell victim to disputes between Roman Catholics and the followers of the Bohemian religious reformer Jan Hus, who was burned as a heretic in 1415. Wars between Bohemian Hussites and Roman Catholics engulfed the kingdom until compacts were negotiated in 1436, granting the more moderate Hussites some degree of religious freedom.

The Kingdom of Dalmatia

The First Austrian Administration

The Austrian army, with about 4,000 soldiers, was led by the Croatian general Mathias Rukavina von Boynograd in claiming the newly acquired territories. Rukavina, a supporter of the unification of Dalmatia and Croatia-Slavonia, was named Military Governor of Dalmatia. The people and the clergy were delighted to see the arrival of a Croat-led army composed predominantly of ethnic Croats. However, Dalmatia was treated as a newly conquered territory and so it had no autonomous government but was directly subjected to the government in Vienna.

The French Administration

Following the Peace of Pressburg, Napoleon sent General Gabriel Jean Joseph Molitor to take over Dalmatia. In February 1806, the French occupied northern Dalmatia down to the Neretva River. The Bay of Kotor, which was also given to the French by the Peace, was held by the Russians and their Montenegrin allies. In addition, the Russians also occupied the Korčula and sought to capture the Republic of Ragusa.

The Second Austrian Administration

Already in 1811, the British took over Vis from the French, and in 1812 Lastovo, Korčula, Pelješac, Hvar, Cavtat, Dubrovnik islands and Split. Kotor was held by the Russians. After Napoleon's defeat in the 1813 Battle of Leipzig, the Austrian Empire took control of the Illyrian provinces. The takeover of Dalmatia was easily accomplished in the fall of 1813 by General Franjo Tomašić and his troops of 2,900 Croatian soldiers, because the people of Dalmatia, under the leadership of the clergy, especially the Franciscans, met them as liberators.

Italian and Croatian National Revival in Dalmatia

French and Austrian rule greatly contributed to Croatian national awakening in Dalmatia, which was also influenced by the ideas of the Illyrian movement, active in the Kingdom of Croatia. In 1835, Božidar Petranović began printing Serbo-Dalmatian Magazine in Zadar, while in 1844 Ante Kuzmanić launched Zora dalmatinska magazine and began working on the linguistic and national awareness of the Dalmatians, which was until then only encouraged by the clergy.

Conflict between People's and Autonomist parties

In 1860, two opposing political parties emerged in Dalmatia: the Croatian nationalist liberal People's Party, led by Miho Klaić and Mihovil Pavlinović, and the Italian nationalist conservative Autonomist Party, led by Antonio Bajamonti and Luigi Lapenno. The Autonomist Party was supported by the Dalmatian Governor Lazar Mamula, the cities of Zadar and Split, some other smaller cities and municipalities, as well as the Viennese court that feared the weakening of Austria in relation to Croatia-Slavonia and Hungary if the unification happened. The People's Party was supported by Stari Grad, Vrboska, Metković, Bol, Dubrovnik and Kotor. The main point of the People's Party program was the unification of Dalmatia with Croatia-Slavonia and the introduction of Croatian as the teaching language.

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