The Birth Of A New Bolivia: Post-Ayacucho

The Battle of Ayacucho was a decisive military encounter during the Peruvian War of Independence. The battle secured the independence of Peru and ensured independence for the rest of South America. The battle was fought between Royalist and Independentist forces, with the latter led by Simón Bolívar's lieutenant, Antonio José de Sucre. The defeat of the Royalist army led to the signing of a capitulation agreement, which included the withdrawal of all Spanish forces from Peru and Charcas (Bolivia). The Bolivian Republic was established in 1825 and named after Simón Bolívar.

Bolivia's independence from Spain

The Battle of Ayacucho was a decisive military encounter that secured the independence of Peru and ensured independence for the rest of South America. The battle, which took place on 9 December 1824, was fought between Royalist and Independentist forces. The Independentist forces were led by Simón Bolívar's lieutenant, Antonio José de Sucre, and the Royalist forces were led by Viceroy José de la Serna. The battle resulted in a victory for the Independentists, and the final capitulation of the Royalist army.

The road to Bolivia's independence from Spain was long and complex, and it began with the invasion of the Iberian Peninsula by Napoleon Bonaparte's forces in 1807-1808. This event tested the loyalty of the local elites in Upper Peru, who were faced with several conflicting authorities. While some remained loyal to the Spanish Bourbons, others supported the Supreme Central Junta in Spain, which claimed to rule in the name of the abdicated King Ferdinand VII. A few officials supported the claims of Ferdinand's sister, Carlota, who governed Brazil with her husband, and a small number of radical criollos wanted independence for Upper Peru.

This conflict of authority resulted in a local power struggle in Upper Peru between 1808 and 1810, which constituted the first phase of the efforts to achieve independence. In 1809, Pedro Domingo Murillo led a revolt by criollos and mestizos in La Paz and proclaimed an independent junta of Upper Peru, which would govern in the name of Ferdinand VII. By November 1809, Cochabamba, Oruro, and Potosí had joined the La Paz junta. However, both revolts were put down by forces sent by the viceroys of Peru and the Río de la Plata.

During the following seven years, Upper Peru became a battleground for forces of the independent United Provinces of the River Plate and royalist troops from Peru. Although the royalists repulsed several invasions, guerrillas controlled parts of the countryside, where they formed significant zones of insurrection. By 1817, Upper Peru was relatively quiet and under the control of the Viceroyalty of Peru.

After 1820, conservative criollos supported General Pedro Antonio de Olañeta, a Charcas native who refused to accept the restoration of the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812. Olañeta was convinced that these measures threatened royal authority and refused to join either the liberal royalist forces or the rebel armies under Bolívar and Sucre. Olañeta continued his resistance even after the Peruvian royalists included him and his forces in their capitulation agreement following their defeat at Ayacucho in 1824.

The war for independence in Upper Peru continued until 1825, with the final defeat of Olañeta's forces by Sucre's army. On 6 August 1825, a constitutional congress declared Bolivia an independent republic, naming the new country after Simón Bolívar to gain his support for Bolivian independence from Peru. Bolívar transferred his authority over Upper Peru to Sucre, who was formally installed as Bolivia's first elected president.

The Bolivian Republic's founding

The founding of the Bolivian Republic was a complex and protracted process, occurring in the context of the Latin-American wars of independence and the struggle to free the region from Spanish colonial rule. The Battle of Ayacucho in 1824 was a pivotal moment in this process, as it secured the independence of Peru and ensured the eventual independence of the rest of South America.

In the aftermath of the Battle of Ayacucho, the focus shifted to Upper Peru, which had been a battleground between the forces of the independent United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and royalist troops from the Viceroyalty of Peru. The independence movement in Upper Peru was led by figures such as Pedro Domingo Murillo, who had proclaimed an independent state in the name of King Ferdinand VII as early as 1809. However, it was not until 1825 that the region would achieve its independence and become the Bolivian Republic.

The independence movement in Upper Peru gained momentum with the arrival of Simón Bolívar's lieutenant, Antonio José de Sucre, in February 1825. Sucre had led the revolutionary forces to victory at Ayacucho, and he now worked to install an independent administration in Upper Peru. This process was complicated by the continued resistance of royalist forces led by General Pedro Antonio de Olañeta, who refused to accept the capitulation agreement following the Battle of Ayacucho. Olañeta continued his resistance until he was killed by his own men in April 1825.

On August 6, 1825, the constituent assembly in Chuquisaca declared the complete independence of Upper Peru as a republic. This declaration was made by representatives from Charcas, Potosí, La Paz, Cochabamba, and Santa Cruz, and it was done in honour of the Battle of Junín won by Bolívar. The new republic faced significant challenges, including a struggling economy, a lack of foreign credit, and border disputes with neighbouring countries.

The founding of the Bolivian Republic was closely associated with Simón Bolívar, who was seen as a liberator figure. The country was named Bolivia in his honour, and he was given the title of "Father of the Republic and Supreme Chief of State". Bolívar declined the presidency, instead transferring authority to his lieutenant, Antonio José de Sucre, who became the first elected president of Bolivia.

Despite the formal declaration of independence, the process of establishing the Bolivian Republic was not without challenges and setbacks. The country faced economic difficulties due to the disruption of the mining industry and a decline in agricultural production. There were also ongoing border disputes and conflicts with neighbouring countries, such as the War of the Pacific with Chile, which resulted in Bolivia losing its access to the sea and valuable natural resources. Nonetheless, the founding of the Bolivian Republic marked a significant step towards self-governance and freedom from colonial rule in the region.

The country's economic and social reforms

The Battle of Ayacucho was a crucial military encounter during the Peruvian War of Independence, securing the independence of Peru and ensuring independence for the rest of South America. The battle was fought between Royalist and Independentist forces, with the latter led by Simón Bolívar's lieutenant, Antonio José de Sucre. The defeat of the Royalist army signalled the end of Spanish rule in Upper Peru, now Bolivia.

The economic and social reforms that followed Bolivia's independence were significant and wide-ranging. Under Simón Bolívar, who became the country's dictator, several decrees were issued to transform the young nation. Bolívar declared the equality of all citizens and abolished tribute payments, replacing them with a "direct contribution" tax. He also attempted land reform, aiming to distribute land to indigenous people, and tried to curb the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in politics. Bolívar's decrees, however, were not fully implemented during his short tenure, and he expressed doubts about the ability of Bolivians to govern themselves.

After Bolívar, Antonio José de Sucre became Bolivia's first elected president. Sucre's government focused on addressing the country's grave financial problems, which had been exacerbated by huge military expenditures and debt payments to Peru. To this end, Sucre reformed the tax structure and attempted to revive silver mining by attracting foreign capital and technology. He also confiscated church wealth and closed down many monasteries, significantly reducing the influence of the Roman Catholic Church. Additionally, Sucre re-established tribute payments to address the financial crisis.

Sucre's successor, Andrés de Santa Cruz, enjoyed a relatively stable and prosperous period as president from 1829 to 1839. Santa Cruz's notable achievements included opening the port of Cobija on the Pacific coast, devaluing the silver currency to finance government activities, and instituting protective tariffs to support local industries. He also codified the country's laws and enacted Latin America's first civil and commercial codes. Santa Cruz's rule, however, was authoritarian, and he did not tolerate opposition.

The period following Santa Cruz's presidency was marked by political instability and economic decline. The country relied heavily on taxes paid by the indigenous population, and the government continued to assault indigenous communal landholdings, leading to massive uprisings. This instability continued until the early 20th century, when tin replaced silver as the country's primary source of wealth, and a succession of Liberal Party governments adopted laissez-faire policies.

The Bolivian-Peruvian Confederation

The Battle of Ayacucho was a decisive victory for the revolutionary forces, securing the independence of Peru and ensuring the independence of the rest of South America. The battle took place on 9 December 1824, and saw the defeat of the Royalist Spanish army by the revolutionary forces led by Simón Bolívar's lieutenant, Antonio José de Sucre. The terms of surrender stipulated the withdrawal of all Spanish forces from Peru and Charcas (Bolivia).

In the aftermath of the battle, Sucre, under orders from Bolívar, entered Upper Peru (Bolivia) in February 1825. He was tasked with installing an independent administration and giving a sense of legality to a process that the people of Upper Peru had already started. Sucre's victory at Ayacucho, coupled with the efforts of the people of Upper Peru, led to the declaration of the complete independence of Upper Peru as a republic on 6 August 1825. The new state was named the República Bolívar in honour of Bolívar, who was designated the "Father of the Republic and Supreme Chief of State". Bolívar declined the presidency, which was instead given to Sucre.

In the years following independence, the young nation of Bolivia continued to face challenges. In 1825, Bolívar published a work praising Sucre's achievements and predicting a bright future for the new republic. However, Bolívar also had concerns about Bolivia's future due to its central location in South America, and he preferred for Bolivia to become part of another nation, such as Peru or Argentina. Despite these concerns, Bolivia's independence was a significant milestone in the region's quest for autonomy and self-determination.

In the years following its independence, Bolivia experienced political instability and internal conflicts. One notable event during this period was the formation of the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation, which existed from 1836 to 1839. This confederation was a short-lived union between the states of North Peru, South Peru, and Bolivia, with Andrés de Santa Cruz as the Supreme Protector. The confederation faced opposition from neighbouring countries and internal divisions, ultimately leading to its dissolution in 1839 after a military intervention by Peruvian and Chilean forces.

The Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation came about due to political instability and civil wars in Peru during the 1830s. The country was divided into North Peru and South Peru, and Bolivian President Andrés de Santa Cruz took advantage of the situation to expand his influence. He sent troops to support constitutional president Luis José de Orbegoso against a self-declared president, Felipe Santiago Salaverry, and emerged victorious. Assemblies were established to create the confederation, and each of the three states had its own constituent congress.

The Peru-Bolivian Confederation was a plan to reunite Upper Peru (Bolivia) and Lower Peru (Peru) into a single political and economic entity. This integration was based on historical, cultural, ethnic, and economic reasons. Santa Cruz, as the president of Bolivia, had long sought this union and took advantage of the political unrest in Peru to achieve his goal. He became the Supreme Protector of the confederation, while Orbegoso remained as the president of North Peru.

The confederation faced opposition from neighbouring countries, particularly Chile and Argentina, who saw it as a potential military and economic threat. Chile, already strained by economic problems with independent Peru, declared war on the confederation in 1836. Argentina also opposed the confederation due to a territorial dispute over Tarija, which Bolivia had annexed. Internal divisions and external pressures ultimately led to the confederation's defeat and dissolution in 1839.

Bolivia's military weakness

Firstly, Bolivia has a history of political instability, with a succession of military and civilian governments, coups d'état, and dictatorships. This instability has often been fuelled by social and economic inequality, with a wide gap between the wealthy elite and the impoverished native population. This inequality has led to numerous uprisings and protests, which have challenged the government's authority and stability.

Secondly, Bolivia has been accused of serious human rights abuses by organisations such as the United States Department of State and Freedom House. These abuses include torture, cruel and inhumane treatment, arbitrary arrests, harsh prison conditions, and restrictions on freedom of expression and media. The country also struggles with extensive gender-based violence, including femicide, and has been criticised for its handling of Indigenous land rights and demarcation.

Thirdly, Bolivia's defence capabilities are limited. While the country has army, naval, and air force branches, it ranks 82nd out of 145 countries in the annual Global Firepower review for 2024. Bolivia's landlocked geography further limits its defence capabilities, and it has struggled to protect its natural resources and territorial integrity.

In conclusion, Bolivia's military weakness stems from a combination of political and social instability, human rights abuses, and limited defence capabilities, which have hindered its ability to protect its interests and maintain stability.

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