Austria's Eastern European Rule: Territories And Influence

Austria, a landlocked country in Central Europe, has had a huge impact on the development of Western Europe. The Austrian ruling Habsburg dynasty controlled large parts of Western Europe for much of the period from 1278 to 1918. The origins of modern Austria date back to the 9th century when the countryside of upper and lower Austria became increasingly populated.

The Austrian Empire was a great power and one of the largest states in Europe. It was a multinational state that collapsed after World War I, not least because of the drive for independence among its numerous nationalities. As the surviving state of the former Dual Monarchy, Austria was proclaimed a republic in 1918, but it was difficult for this small nation to find its place in the new European order.

Austria is bordered by Germany to the northwest, the Czech Republic to the north, Slovakia to the northeast, Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. It occupies an area of 83,879 km2 (32,386 sq mi) and has a population of around 9 million.

The Austrian Empire's expansion into Hungary

The Austrian Empire, also known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was a multinational European great power from 1804 to 1867. It was created by proclamation out of the realms of the Habsburgs and was the third most populous monarchy in Europe after the Russian Empire and the United Kingdom. In terms of geographical size, it was the third-largest empire in Europe after the Russian Empire and the First French Empire.

The Kingdom of Hungary, as Regnum Independens, was administered separately from the rest of the empire. After the Austrian defeat in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was adopted, joining the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria to form Austria-Hungary. This was a dual monarchy, a real union between Cisleithania (the northern and western parts of the former Austrian Empire) and Transleithania (the Kingdom of Hungary).

The Austrian-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was a result of negotiations between the central government in Vienna and Hungarian political leaders, led by Ferenc Deák. The Hungarians maintained that the April Laws were still valid, but conceded that under the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, foreign affairs and defence were "common" to Austria and Hungary. On 20 March 1867, the newly re-established Hungarian parliament at Pest started to negotiate the new laws, which were officially enacted on 30 March. On 28 July, Franz Joseph, in his new capacity as King of Hungary, approved and promulgated the new laws, which officially gave birth to the Dual Monarchy.

Austria's conflict with the Ottoman Empire

Austria, as a unified state, emerged from the remnants of the Eastern and Hungarian March at the end of the first millennium. It was first a frontier march of the Holy Roman Empire, then a duchy in 1156, and finally an archduchy in 1453.

The Ottoman-Habsburg wars were fought from the 16th to the 18th centuries between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg monarchy. The wars were dominated by land campaigns in Hungary, including Transylvania (now in Romania) and Vojvodina (now in Serbia), Croatia, and central Serbia. Initially, Ottoman conquests in Europe proved successful with a decisive victory at Mohács reducing the Kingdom of Hungary to the status of an Ottoman tributary. By the 16th century, the Ottomans had become an existential threat to Europe, with Ottoman Barbary ships sweeping away Venetian possessions in the Aegean and Ionia.

In 1529, the Ottomans laid siege to Vienna for the first time, but they were forced to retreat due to an early snowfall. This was the furthest the Ottoman Empire would get to the heart of Europe.

In the 17th century, the Peace of Westphalia and the War of the Spanish Succession reduced the House of Habsburg to the Austrian Empire. By then, however, European advances in guns and military tactics outweighed the skill and resources of the Ottomans and their elite Janissaries, thus ensuring Habsburg dominance on land. The Great Turkish War ended with three decisive Holy League victories at Vienna, Mohács, and Zenta.

The Ottoman-Habsburg wars continued until the 19th century, with the last conflict between the two empires being the Austro-Turkish War of 1788-1791. The wars ended after Austria's participation in the war of 1787-1791, which Austria fought alongside Russia. Intermittent tension between Austria and the Ottoman Empire continued throughout the 19th century, but they never fought each other in a war and ultimately found themselves allied in World War I, after which both empires were dissolved.

The Austrian-Hungarian Compromise of 1867

The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, also known as the Ausgleich, established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, a military and diplomatic alliance of two sovereign states. The Compromise was a response to the Austrian Empire's defeat in the Seven Weeks' War (Austro-Prussian War) of 1866, which weakened its position. The agreement ended the 18-year-long military dictatorship and absolutist rule over Hungary that Emperor Franz Joseph had instituted after the Hungarian Revolution of 1848.

Under the Compromise, the lands of the House of Habsburg were reorganised as a real union between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, with a single monarch, Emperor Franz Joseph I, at its head. While the two states were united by a common army and foreign policy, each had its own constitution, government, and parliament. The citizens of each half were treated as foreigners in the other. The Austrian half, or Cisleithania, consisted of seventeen historical crown lands and was officially referred to as the 'kingdoms and lands represented in the Imperial Council'. The Hungarian half, or Transleithania, was dominated by the Kingdom of Hungary, which included the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia, and the free city of Rijeka/Fiume.

The Compromise restored Hungary's territorial integrity and its old historic constitution, including the series of reform laws (the April Laws) of the revolutionary parliament of 1848, which established modern civil and political rights and economic and societal reforms in Hungary. Hungary's independent legal, judicial, and customs systems were also restored. While the two states shared a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities, with separate finance ministries. Each state conducted its international commercial treaties and trade agreements independently.

The Austro-Hungarian Compromise was unpopular among ethnic Hungarian voters, who felt betrayed by the agreement, which reduced Hungary's status to a partnership in a real union. However, it was supported by ethnic minority voters in the Kingdom of Hungary, who held the key to the political maintenance of the Compromise. The Compromise was also a source of discontent for other ethnic groups, like the Slovaks and Romanians, who faced increased pressures of Magyarisation. The dual monarchy, therefore, continued to face the same internal pressures as the old system, despite attempts to fix the problems of a multi-national state.

Austria's role in the First World War

Austria-Hungary, also known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, comprised what are today the states of Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and parts of several other countries in Central and Eastern Europe. The Empire was a dual monarchy, with a complex structure that aimed to accommodate the many different ethnic groups within its borders. This included Slavs, Romanians, and Italians, as well as Germans and Hungarians.

Now, onto Austria's role in the First World War:

Austria-Hungary's role in the First World War was significant, as it was the conflict's central power and one of the key members of the Central Powers, along with Germany, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, on June 28, 1914, by a Serbian nationalist group, the Black Hand, served as the immediate catalyst for the outbreak of World War I. This event, known as the "Sarajevo Assassination," set off a chain of complex political and military events that led to the war.

Prior to the assassination, Austria-Hungary had been a declining power in Europe, struggling to maintain its influence and integrity in the face of rising nationalism and independence movements among the various ethnic groups within its empire. The assassination provided the Austro-Hungarian government with an opportunity to assert its authority and seek revenge against Serbia, which it believed had supported the assassins. On July 23, 1914, Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, which was seen as overly harsh and designed to be rejected, and when Serbia only partially accepted the terms, this led to the outbreak of hostilities.

Austria-Hungary's primary role in the war was as a member of the Central Powers, fighting against the Entente Powers, which included France, Russia, and, from 1915, Italy, which had been a former ally of Austria-Hungary. The Austro-Hungarian Army fought on multiple fronts, including against Russia in the east and Serbia in the Balkans. Despite some initial successes, such as the invasion of Serbia in 1915, the Austro-Hungarian military struggled to achieve decisive victories and suffered from supply issues and low morale, especially as the war dragged on.

One of the key turning points in the war involving Austria-Hungary was the Battle of Gallipoli, which began in 1915. This campaign, designed to knock Turkey out of the war and open a supply route to Russia, ended in failure for the Allies and resulted in heavy losses for the Austro-Hungarian forces, who were fighting alongside German and Turkish troops. Another significant battle was the Brusilov Offensive in 1916, where the Russian Army inflicted heavy casualties on the Austro-Hungarians, further weakening their military position.

By 1918, with the war entering its final stages, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was facing increasing internal turmoil, with nationalist movements gaining strength and seeking independence. The Empire's military position was also deteriorating rapidly, with its forces suffering heavy defeats at the hands of the Italians at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto in October 1918. This battle marked the effective end of Austria-Hungary's role in the war, as it led to the collapse of the Empire and the subsequent signing of the Armistice of Villa Giusti on November 3, 1918, bringing an end to the war on the Italian Front.

The Anschluss

Background

The idea of a united Germany and Austria, or a "Greater Germany", emerged after the 1871 unification of Germany, which excluded Austria. The concept gained support after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, and the subsequent economic crisis. The new Republic of German-Austria attempted to unite with Germany, but the Treaty of Saint Germain and the Treaty of Versailles prohibited this.

Attempts at Unification

By the 1920s, the proposal for unification, or Anschluss, had strong support in both Austria and Germany, particularly among Austrian citizens of the political left and centre. However, over time, popular support for unification faded, although it remained a concept in Austrian political discourse. After Adolf Hitler's rise to power in Germany in 1933, the desire for unification became associated with the Nazis, who saw it as an integral part of their "Heim ins Reich" concept, which aimed to incorporate as many Volksdeutsche (ethnic Germans) as possible into a "Greater Germany".

The Austrian Response

In response to growing pro-unification sentiment, the Austrian chancellor, Engelbert Dollfuss, attempted to preserve Austrian independence and opposed unification. This led to his assassination by Austrian Nazis in 1934. Dollfuss' successor, Kurt Schuschnigg, initially followed a similar political course, but eventually came under increasing pressure from pro-unification activists. In early 1938, Schuschnigg announced a referendum on the issue of unification, to be held on March 13, 1938.

The Annexation

Hitler, infuriated by the planned referendum, threatened an invasion and demanded Schuschnigg's resignation. On March 11, 1938, a day before the referendum, the German army crossed the border into Austria, unopposed by the Austrian military. Schuschnigg resigned, and was replaced by Arthur Seyss-Inquart, a supporter of unification. On March 13, Seyss-Inquart signed the "Reunification of Austria with Germany" law, formally incorporating Austria into Nazi Germany.

Aftermath

The annexation of Austria was the first act of territorial aggression committed by Nazi Germany, and it demonstrated Hitler's aggressive territorial ambitions. The international community's lack of intervention or punishment for this violation of international treaties was a significant act of appeasement, allowing Hitler to continue his expansionary policies. The annexation also had a profound impact on Austria's Jewish population, who faced public violence, discrimination, and persecution in the wake of the Anschluss.

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