Austria-Hungary's Fateful Decision: Two World War Legacies

The consequences of Austria-Hungary's entry into World War I were far-reaching and wide-ranging. Here are two examples:

Economic and Social Impact: The war brought about a harsh military dictatorship in Austria-Hungary, along with significant changes in labour deployment, gender roles, and the creation of camps for POWs, refugees, and deportees. The war also led to severe food and energy shortages, which resulted in malnutrition, disease, and death among the civilian population. The social fabric was further strained by the emergence of a rampant culture of rumour and denunciation, as people struggled to cope with the harsh realities of war.

Political and Territorial Impact: The war accelerated the rise of nationalism and the desire for self-determination among the various ethnic groups within the empire. This ultimately led to the disintegration of the empire and the formation of new nation-states, such as Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. The war also resulted in significant territorial losses for Austria-Hungary, as it was forced to cede South Tyrol, Istria, Gorizia, and other territories to Italy under the terms of the Armistice of Villa Giusti in 1918.

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife, Sophie, were assassinated by Bosnian Serb student Gavrilo Princip. The assassination was politically motivated, with the aim of freeing Bosnia and Herzegovina from Austrian rule and establishing a common South Slav state. Princip was part of a group of six Bosnian assassins, all but one of whom were Bosnian Serbs and members of a student revolutionary group known as Young Bosnia. The group was aided by the Black Hand, a Serbian secret nationalist group.

The declaration of war on Serbia

On the 28th of July 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. This was exactly one month after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg. The assassination was carried out by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist.

Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Serbia was the culmination of a series of events that began with the assassination. The assassination was a significant blow to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the country sought to inflict a military blow on Serbia in response. Austria-Hungary believed that Serbia posed a threat to the unity of its multi-national empire due to its support for Yugoslav nationalism.

Before declaring war, Austria-Hungary sought the support of its powerful ally, Germany. Germany assured Austria-Hungary of its support, urging it to attack Serbia quickly to localise the war and avoid drawing in Russia, which supported Serbia. On the 23rd of July, Austria-Hungary presented Serbia with an ultimatum, demanding, among other things, the suppression of anti-Austrian propaganda and the allowance of Austro-Hungarian officials to conduct an investigation into the assassination.

Serbia's response to the ultimatum was sent on the 25th of July. It conceded to all the demands except one, which would have infringed upon its sovereignty. Austria-Hungary rejected Serbia's reply and broke diplomatic relations on the 25th of July, continuing with military preparedness measures. On the 28th of July, Austria-Hungary officially declared war on Serbia.

Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Serbia had far-reaching consequences. Russia, Serbia's supporter, began its initial steps towards military mobilisation against Austria-Hungary. This mobilisation, in turn, alarmed Germany, which saw it as an aggressive act of war directed against itself and Austria-Hungary. As a result, Germany declared war on Russia on the 1st of August, and the conflict quickly escalated into a global war, with France, Britain, and other nations becoming involved.

The invasion of Serbia

The first invasion of Serbia was led by Austrian General Oskar Potiorek and consisted of three unsuccessful attempts to invade Serbia. The Serbian campaign was fought in challenging terrain, with Austro-Hungarian forces invading from the north and west of Serbia. Despite the challenges, the Serbian army, supported by their Montenegrin allies, successfully repelled the Austro-Hungarian invaders. The Serbian victory at the Battle of Cer is considered the first Allied victory of World War I.

The second invasion of Serbia, almost a year later, was led by Field Marshal August von Mackensen and included Bulgarian, Austro-Hungarian, and German forces. This campaign successfully invaded Serbia from three sides, resulting in the Great Retreat through Montenegro and Albania and the evacuation to Greece. The defeat of Serbia gave the Central Powers temporary control of the Balkans, opening a land route from Berlin to Constantinople and allowing the resupply of the Ottoman Empire for the remainder of the war.

For Austria-Hungary, the invasion of Serbia was the first military campaign of World War I, and the failure of the first invasion was a significant setback. The Austro-Hungarian Army's defeat by Serbia has been described as one of the great upsets of modern military history. The invasion also contributed to the eventual dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, as the war effort strained the multi-ethnic empire, leading to increasing demands for independence among its constituent nationalities.

The occupation of Serbia

The Invasion of Serbia

The invasion of Serbia by Austria-Hungary was not successful initially. In 1914, the Austro-Hungarian forces occupied parts of Serbia for 13 days, committing war crimes and massacres of civilians. However, the Serbian army liberated the occupied areas and pushed the Austro-Hungarian forces back.

The Second Invasion

In September 1914, the Austro-Hungarians launched a second invasion of Serbia, but they were again defeated by the Serbian army.

The Third Invasion

In November 1914, the Austro-Hungarians launched a third invasion, capturing Valjevo and Belgrade. However, the Serbian army mounted a successful counterattack and recaptured Belgrade.

The Fourth Invasion

In October 1915, Austria-Hungary, with the support of Germany and Bulgaria, launched a fourth invasion of Serbia. This time, they were successful, and by November 1915, all of Serbia was under the control of the Central Powers.

The Occupation

Serbia was divided into two occupation zones: an Austro-Hungarian zone and a Bulgarian zone. The Austro-Hungarian zone covered the northern three-quarters of Serbia and was ruled by a military administration established by the Austro-Hungarian Army. The goal of the occupation was to denationalise the Serb population and exploit the country's economic resources.

The Austro-Hungarian occupation imposed a military legal system that banned political organisations, forbade public assembly, and brought schools under its control. They also imposed martial law, practised hostage-taking, burned villages, and responded to uprisings with public hangings and summary executions. During the occupation, between 150,000 and 200,000 Serbs were deported to internment and concentration camps in Austria-Hungary.

Liberation of Serbia

In September 1918, Allied forces, including the Serbian army, broke through the Salonica front, leading to the surrender of Bulgaria and the liberation of Serbia. By 1 November 1918, all of pre-war Serbia had been liberated, ending the three-year occupation.

The occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The Treaty of Berlin, which was signed by the Great Powers following the Russo-Turkish War, stated that Bosnia and Herzegovina would remain under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire but would be occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary. This occupation was intended to prevent the extension of Russian influence and the union of Serbia and Montenegro. However, the Austro-Hungarian takeover faced resistance from the Orthodox Serbs and Bosnian Muslims, who together made up 82% of the population. The Bosnian Muslims stood to lose their privileged status under the new Christian government.

The Austro-Hungarian Army mobilised a force of 82,113 troops, 13,313 horses, and 112 cannons to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina. The campaign was characterised by fierce resistance from the local population, with significant battles occurring near Čitluk, Stolac, Livno, and Klobuk. Despite setbacks, the Austro-Hungarian Army captured Sarajevo in October 1878. The occupation resulted in a mass emigration of predominantly Muslim dissidents and the establishment of a state of relative stability, allowing the Austro-Hungarian authorities to implement social and administrative reforms.

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