Leslie Massey
Indigenous Australians are the people with familial heritage from, or recognised membership of, the various ethnic groups living within the territory of contemporary Australia prior to British colonisation. They consist of two distinct groups: the Aboriginal Australians of the mainland and many islands, and the Torres Strait Islanders of the seas between Queensland and Papua New Guinea. The Aboriginal peoples, together with the peoples of the Torres Strait Islands, are the original inhabitants of Australia, with evidence suggesting that they have been there for around 40,000–65,000 years.
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What You'll Learn
History and Origins
Indigenous Australians are the people with familial heritage from, or recognised membership of, the various ethnic groups living within the territory of contemporary Australia prior to British colonisation. They consist of two distinct groups: the Aboriginal Australians of the mainland and many islands, including Tasmania, and the Torres Strait Islanders of the seas between Queensland and Papua New Guinea, located in Melanesia.
The time of the arrival of the first humans in Australia is a matter of debate and ongoing investigation. The earliest conclusively human remains found in Australia are those of Mungo Man LM3 and Mungo Lady, dated to around 40,000 years ago. However, Indigenous Australians have most likely been living in Australia for upwards of 65,000 years.
The Aboriginal Australians originally came from Asia via insular Southeast Asia (now Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, East Timor, Indonesia, and the Philippines). They migrated to Australia between 45,000 and 65,000 years ago. By about 35,000 years ago, all of the continent had been occupied, including its southwest and southeast corners. Tasmania became an island when sea levels rose sometime between 13,500 and 8,000 years ago, thus isolating Aboriginal people.
Over time, the ancient people expanded and differentiated into distinct groups, each with its own language and culture. More than 400 distinct Australian Aboriginal peoples have been identified, distinguished by names designating their ancestral languages, dialects, or distinct cultural practices. Before the British invasion, Aboriginal people lived throughout Australia, although the highest population density was along the coast. They formed extensive networks within the continent and certain groups maintained relationships with Torres Strait Islanders and the Makassar people of modern-day Indonesia.
Genetic data on indigenous populations of Borneo and Malaysia showed them to be more closely related to other mainland Asian groups than to the groups from Papua New Guinea and Australia. This indicates that the populations in Australia were isolated for a long time from the rest of Southeast Asia. They remained untouched by migrations and population expansions into that area, which can be explained by the Wallace line. The Rasmussen study also found evidence that Aboriginal peoples carry some genes associated with the Denisovans (a species of human related to but distinct from Neanderthals) of Asia.
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Population and Demographics
Indigenous Australians consist of two distinct groups: the Aboriginal Australians of the mainland and many islands, and the Torres Strait Islanders of the seas between Queensland and Papua New Guinea.
In the 2021 Australian Census, 812,728 people self-identified as being of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander origin, representing 3.2% of the total population of Australia. This number increased to 984,000 in the 2022 census, representing 3.8% of the total Australian population. This increase is not wholly explained by demographic factors, but also by changing identification in the census and throughout life, an undercount for ages 0-4 in the 2016 census, greater participation in the 2021 census, and a higher response rate to the question on Indigenous status.
The Indigenous population of Australia is much younger than the non-Indigenous population, with an estimated median age of 21 years in 2016, which increased to 24 in 2021. This is due to higher birth rates and lower life expectancy in the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population compared to the non-Indigenous population. In 2021, one-third (33.1%) of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians were aged under 15 years, compared with 17.9% of non-Indigenous people in the same age group. People aged 65 years and over comprised 5.4% of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population, compared with 17.2% of the non-Indigenous population.
In 2021, 84.6% (832,800 people) of First Nations people lived in non-remote areas: 40.8% lived in Major cities, 24.8% in Inner regional areas, and 19% in Outer regional areas. The remaining 15.4% lived in Remote and Very Remote Australia. The proportion of the total population who were Indigenous increased with remoteness, from 1.8% in major cities to 32% in remote and very remote areas. Three-quarters (74.5%) lived in New South Wales, Queensland, and Western Australia combined. The Northern Territory had the highest proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people relative to its total population size (30.8%), and Victoria had the lowest (1.2%).
The Indigenous population prior to European settlement was small, with estimates ranging widely from 318,000 to more than 3,000,000 in total. At the time of European colonisation, it is estimated that there were over 250 Aboriginal languages. It is now estimated that all but 13 remaining Indigenous languages are considered endangered. Aboriginal people today mostly speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English.
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Culture and Language
Indigenous Australians consist of two groups: Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders. The former are the various indigenous peoples of the Australian mainland and many of its islands, excluding the ethnically distinct people of the Torres Strait Islands. The latter are the people who lived on the Torres Strait Islands, which are part of Queensland, Australia.
Indigenous Australians have a strong connection to the land, and their beliefs are unique to each tribe. Traditional cultural beliefs are passed down and shared through dancing, stories, songlines, and art—especially Papunya Tula (dot painting)—collectively telling the story of creation known as The Dreamtime. Traditional healers were also custodians of important Dreaming stories as part of their medical roles. Some core structures and themes are shared across the continent, with details and additional elements varying between language and cultural groups.
Indigenous Australians have developed distinct artistic and religious traditions, and their culture is one of the oldest continuous cultures in the world. They have a special relationship with their traditional land, waters, or territories, which are of fundamental importance for their physical and cultural survival. They also have unique knowledge systems and invaluable traditional knowledge for the sustainable management of natural resources.
Aboriginal people have referred to themselves as Koori, Murri, or Nunga, depending on the region they are connected to. Their identities can also directly link to their language groups and traditional country (a specific geographic location). For example, the Gunditjamara people are the traditional custodians of western Victoria, the Gadigal people of the Eora nation are from Sydney, and the Yawuru people are the traditional custodians of Broome in Western Australia.
There were over 250 Aboriginal languages at the time of European colonisation, with about 800 dialectal varieties on the continent. However, only 13 traditional Indigenous languages are still being acquired by children, and about another 100 are spoken by older generations only. Most Aboriginal people speak English today, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English, which has also been influenced by Indigenous languages in its phonology and grammatical structure.
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Colonisation and Genocide
The Indigenous people of Australia, often referred to as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, have a rich and complex history that spans over 60,000 years. Unfortunately, their story is also one of colonization and genocide, which has had a devastating impact on their communities and continues to affect them today.
Colonization began in 1788 with the arrival of the British, who established the colony of New South Wales. Over the next 150 years, the British expanded their presence across the continent, establishing further colonies and enacting policies that dispossessed and marginalized Australia's Indigenous people. Land was taken without negotiation or compensation, and Indigenous people were forcibly removed from their traditional lands, leading to widespread dislocation and the destruction of their communities and way of life.
The colonial government enacted a series of policies and laws that institutionalized racism and discrimination against Indigenous Australians. They were denied basic human rights, including the right to vote, own property, or receive equal wages. The protection laws gave government officials immense control over the lives of Indigenous people, allowing them to dictate where they could live, work, and even marry. These policies resulted in the forced removal of children from their families, which has become known as the Stolen Generations. Between approximately 1910 and 1970, an estimated one in three Indigenous children were taken from their families and communities, causing immense trauma and the loss of cultural knowledge and connections.
Furthermore, the introduction of foreign diseases to which they had no immunity, such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, decimated Indigenous populations. Violence and massacres perpetrated by colonists also led to significant loss of life. Some historians estimate that up to 11,000 Indigenous people may have been killed in frontier conflicts during the 19th century alone. The combined impact of these factors has been described by many, including Australian courts, as a genocide.
The effects of colonization and genocide are still felt by Indigenous Australians today. They continue to experience higher rates of incarceration, lower life expectancy, and poorer health and education outcomes compared to non-Indigenous Australians. However, despite these challenges, Indigenous Australians have survived and are actively resisting and reclaiming their culture and identity. They have fought for, and continue to fight for, land rights, recognition, and reconciliation.
It is important to acknowledge and understand this dark chapter in Australia's history to move forward towards a more just and equitable future for all Australians. This includes recognizing the ongoing resilience and strength of Indigenous communities and respecting their ongoing connection to and care for their Country (a term that encompasses the land, sea, and sky).
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Modern-Day Challenges
Indigenous Australians, consisting of Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders, make up 3.2% of the country's population as of 2021. They have faced numerous challenges since British colonisation, including massacres, armed conflicts, and competition over resources with European settlers.
Loss of Languages
Indigenous Australians originally spoke over 250 languages, but today, only 13 are left, with the rest considered endangered. This loss can be attributed to colonisation, where speaking traditional languages was discouraged. Currently, most Aboriginal people speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words incorporated, creating Australian Aboriginal English. However, the proportion of First Nations people speaking Indigenous languages at home has declined over time, from 16.4% in 1991 to 9.5% in 2021.
Racism and Human Rights Issues
Indigenous Australians continue to face racism and human rights violations. There are high incarceration rates, especially among Indigenous children and youth, who are often held in inhumane conditions. Additionally, children are removed from their mothers and families, and placed into non-Indigenous families, a practice that has been increasing. The government's data indicates that the situation is worsening, despite some improvements, such as the potential for a national referendum to change the Australian Constitution and include an elected Aboriginal voice in parliament.
Land Ownership Rights
Indigenous Peoples' land ownership rights are frequently violated. Despite international law requiring free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC) and adequate compensation when relocating Indigenous Peoples, their lands are often appropriated, sold, leased, or plundered and polluted. These lands are rich in natural resources and home to a significant portion of the world's intact forests.
Climate Change
Indigenous leaders argue that the Australian government is not taking sufficient action to address climate change, which poses a threat to their lands and culture. They assert that more pressure needs to be placed on governments and companies in the Global North to take biodiversity loss and climate change seriously.
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Frequently asked questions
Indigenous Australians are the Aboriginal Australians of the mainland and many islands, including Tasmania, and the Torres Strait Islanders of the seas between Queensland and Papua New Guinea.
According to the 2021 census, 812,728 people self-identified as being of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander origin, representing 3.2% of the total population of Australia.
The first human beings in Australia are thought to have arrived between 40,000 and 65,000 years ago.
Most Aboriginal people speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words added, creating Australian Aboriginal English. There are also many Indigenous languages, with 13 traditional languages still being acquired by children as of 2016.
The current definition, proposed in the 1980s, is a person of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander descent, who identifies as such, and is accepted as such by the community in which they live or have lived.
