Britain And Austria-Hungary: Allies Or Not?

The United Kingdom and Austria-Hungary were not allies during World War I. In fact, they were on opposing sides of the conflict. Austria-Hungary was part of the Central Powers, which included Germany, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire. The UK, on the other hand, was a member of the Triple Entente, along with France and Russia.

The Central Powers and the Triple Entente were the two main opposing alliances during World War I. The Triple Alliance, consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, was formed prior to the war. However, Italy remained neutral at the start of the war and later joined the Triple Entente, which also included Japan and the United States.

The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

The Assassination

On the day of the assassination, Franz Ferdinand and Sophie were on a visit to the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo. A group of assassins had been stationed along the motorcade route. As the motorcade passed by, Nedeljko Cabrinovic threw a bomb at the car, which bounced off and rolled underneath the wrong vehicle. The bomb's explosion wounded several bystanders but left the Archduke and his wife unharmed. Cabrinovic attempted to kill himself but was apprehended by the police. The motorcade then sped away towards the Town Hall.

However, the Archduke and his wife were soon on their way to the hospital to visit the wounded officers from the bombing. In the confusion, the driver of their car took a wrong turn and stalled the engine near where Princip was standing. Princip stepped up to the car and shot the couple at point-blank range. Franz Ferdinand's last words were, "Sophie, Sophie, don't die—stay alive for our children." Within minutes, both had passed away.

The Aftermath

The assassination precipitated the July Crisis, which led to Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia and the start of World War I. Austria-Hungary, with German support, sent an ultimatum to Serbia, which was unlikely to be accepted. When Serbia accepted all but one of the demands partially, Austria-Hungary declared war on 28 July 1914, exactly a month after Ferdinand's death. Within a week, Germany, Russia, France, Belgium, Montenegro, and Great Britain had all been drawn into the conflict, and other countries, like the United States, would enter later. Overall, more than 16 million people died in the fighting that lasted until 1918.

The Balkan Powder Keg

The rise of nationalism in the Balkans led to the formation of independent states such as Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Romania, and Albania. These newly independent nations had ambitions to enlarge their boundaries, leading to conflicts with the Ottoman Empire and among themselves. The growth of nationalism also fuelled irredentism in the Balkans, which sought to create "greater" nations by enlarging state boundaries beyond areas where a national ethnic group was in the majority. This further exacerbated tensions in the region.

Additionally, the ideology of Pan-Slavism gained popularity in the Balkans, aiming to unite all the Slavs of the Balkans into one nation, Yugoslavia. However, this movement was strongly opposed by Austria-Hungary as it would require the union of several Balkan states and territories under their rule. In contrast, Russia supported Pan-Slavism as it viewed itself as the leader of all Slavic nations. This created another dimension of conflict between Austria-Hungary and Russia.

The complex web of alliances among the Great Powers, both formal and informal, public and secret, further complicated the situation. Following the Napoleonic Wars, a "balance of power" theory was established to prevent major wars by ensuring opposing combinations of powers in Europe were evenly matched. However, this system began to fall apart as the Ottoman Empire crumbled and Germany unified into a major power, leading to a realignment of power and interests.

The powder keg eventually "exploded" with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by a Bosnian Serb in 1914. This event triggered a series of escalating mobilizations and declarations of war, ultimately leading to the outbreak of World War I.

The Triple Alliance

Formation and Terms

Germany and Austria-Hungary had been closely allied since 1879. Italy sought their support against France shortly after losing North African ambitions to the French. Each member promised mutual support in the event of an attack by any other great power. The treaty provided that Germany and Austria-Hungary were to assist Italy if it was attacked by France without provocation. In turn, Italy would assist Germany if attacked by France. In the event of a war between Austria-Hungary and Russia, Italy promised to remain neutral. This abstention would have the effect of freeing Austrian troops that would otherwise have been needed to guard the Austrian-Italian border.

When the treaty was renewed in February 1887, Italy gained an empty promise of German support for Italian colonial ambitions in North Africa in return for Italy's continued friendship. Austria-Hungary had to be pressured by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck into accepting the principles of consultation and mutual agreement with Italy on any territorial changes initiated in the Balkans or on the coasts and islands of the Adriatic and Aegean seas. Italy and Austria-Hungary did not overcome their basic conflict of interest in that region despite the treaty.

Impact and Dissolution

The Eastern Front

1914: The Outbreak of War and Initial Campaigns

In the first year of the war, Russia launched offensives against both Germany and Austria-Hungary, aiming for a rapid victory. While the invasion of East Prussia was defeated, the advance into Austria-Hungary stalled in the Carpathians. The Austro-Hungarian government accepted the Polish proposal of establishing the Supreme National Committee as the Polish central authority within the empire, responsible for the formation of the Polish Legions, an auxiliary military formation within the Austro-Hungarian army.

1915: The Austro-Hungarian-German Advance into Russia

In 1915, Germany and Austria-Hungary launched a joint offensive into Russia, defeating Russian forces in Galicia and Poland. This caused Russia to abandon the Polish salient, parts of Belarus, the Baltic region, and Galicia. However, the campaigns of 1914-1915 failed to achieve Germany's objective of taking Russia out of the war.

1916: Romania Enters the War

In 1916, Russia went on the offensive to take pressure off France at Verdun. While Russia's attack near Lake Naroch was quickly defeated by Germany, the Brusilov Offensive became the largest Entente victory in the war. Russia inflicted over one million casualties on Austria-Hungary and forced Germany to redeploy divisions from the Western Front. In August 1916, Romania entered the war but was quickly overrun by Germany, though Russia prevented a total Romanian collapse.

1917: The Russian Revolution

The events of the February Revolution in 1917, caused by food shortages in Russian cities, began a decline in discipline among the troops. After the abdication of Emperor Nicholas II, the Russian Provisional Government chose to continue the war to fulfill its obligations to the Entente. In July 1917, Russia's last offensive of the war ended in failure, and in September, Germany captured Riga, bringing them closer to the Russian capital. This was followed by a military coup attempt that weakened the Provisional Government. The Bolsheviks overthrew the Russian Republic in the October Revolution.

1918: The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

The new Soviet government established by the Bolsheviks signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers in March 1918, taking Russia out of the war. However, the Western Entente soon defeated the Central Powers, and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was annulled by the Armistice of November 11, 1918.

The Italian Front

At the outbreak of World War I, Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, but it decided to remain neutral. However, there was a strong sentiment among the Italian population and political factions to go to war against Austria-Hungary, Italy's historical enemy. Italy's primary goal was to annex territory along the frontier stretching from the Trentino region in the Alps to Trieste on the Adriatic Sea, thereby "liberating" Italian-speaking populations from the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

In the years leading up to the war, Italy had grown closer to the Entente powers, France and Great Britain, seeking their support for its expansionist goals. On April 26, 1915, Italy secretly negotiated the Pact of London, in which the Entente powers promised to support Italy's annexation of the frontier lands in exchange for entering the war on their side. On May 3, Italy officially resigned from the Triple Alliance and later declared war on Austria-Hungary at midnight on May 23, 1915.

The Italian army initially mobilised less than 300,000 men, but this number grew to over 5 million by the war's end. The Italian forces were numerically superior to their Austro-Hungarian counterparts, but they suffered from inadequate equipment, poor morale, and a lack of morale. The Austro-Hungarian forces, on the other hand, had the advantage of higher ground and well-fortified defensive positions.

In late 1917, the Austro-Hungarian forces, now reinforced by German troops, launched a spectacularly successful offensive at Caporetto, inflicting heavy casualties on the Italians and forcing them to retreat. This defeat led to a crisis in Italy, resulting in the dismissal of the Italian army's chief of staff, Luigi Cadorna, and the formation of a coalition government. The Italian allies, recognising the critical situation, increased their assistance, with British, French, and later American troops arriving in the region.

The final major battle of the Italian Front was the Battle of Vittorio Veneto in October-November 1918. By this time, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was disintegrating, with Czechoslovakia, Croatia, and Slovenia proclaiming their independence, and many troops deserting. The Italian army, now reinforced by their allies, launched an offensive that broke through the Austro-Hungarian defensive line. On November 3, 1918, 300,000 Austro-Hungarian soldiers surrendered, and the armistice was signed at Villa Giusti, bringing an end to the Italian Front.

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