Austria-Hungary's Rule Over Serbia: Understanding The Historical Context

Serbia's complex history of shifting allegiances and foreign rule has been a key factor in shaping the country's destiny. From the 14th century until the early 1800s, Serbia was under Ottoman rule, with a brief period of independence in the 19th century before it became a self-governing principality in 1830. In 1878, Serbia gained independence from the Ottoman Empire, but its proximity to European powers kept it vulnerable to foreign influence. Serbia's first king, Milan Obrenovic, aligned closely with Austria, leading to economic dependence and a perception of Serbia as a puppet state. However, under King Peter I, who ascended the throne in 1903, Serbia sought to reduce its reliance on Austria, diversify its trade partners, and embrace democratic reforms. These developments fuelled Serbian nationalism and contributed to rising tensions with Austria-Hungary, which ultimately culminated in the outbreak of World War I.

Serbian independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878

Serbia's independence from the Ottoman Empire was a process that took place over several decades. The Serbian Revolution, which began in 1804, was a national uprising and constitutional change in Serbia that marked the beginning of the country's journey towards independence. During this period, Serbia evolved from an Ottoman province to a rebel territory, a constitutional monarchy, and eventually modern Serbia. The revolution was sparked by the Slaughter of the Knezes, where the Ottoman Janissary executed prominent nobles in Central Serbia, with their heads put on public display. This triggered widespread resistance and a violent struggle for independence, which included two armed uprisings.

In 1815, Serbia gained autonomy from the Ottoman Empire through two uprisings, one led by Đorđe Petrović in 1804 and the other by Miloš Obrenović in 1815. However, Turkish troops continued to garrison the capital, Belgrade, until 1867, when Serbia achieved de facto independence. This was followed by official recognition of the Serbian state from 1815 to 1833 and the adoption of the first written Constitution in 1835, which abolished feudalism and serfdom.

Serbia's independence was further solidified in 1878, with the Treaty of San Stefano declaring Serbia an independent state. This came after the Serbian–Ottoman Wars (1876-1878), a series of two consequent wars fought between the Principality of Serbia and the Ottoman Empire. During these wars, Serbia faced initial setbacks due to a poorly trained and ill-equipped army but was able to regroup with help from Imperial Russia. The Royal Serbian Army captured most of the South Morava basin, and the final outcome of the wars was decided by the Congress of Berlin in 1878, where Serbia gained international recognition as an independent state and expanded its territory.

While Serbia gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878, it is important to note that it still faced external pressures and influences, particularly from Austria-Hungary, which sought to exert economic and political control over the country. Serbia's alignment with Austria-Hungary led to economic dependence and tensions with other Slavic nations in the Balkans, contributing to rising nationalism and eventually leading to the outbreak of World War I.

Serbian economic dependence on Austria-Hungary

Serbia's economic dependence on Austria-Hungary was largely a result of the policies of its first king, Milan Obrenovic, who was pro-Austrian. During his reign, Serbia became economically dependent on Austria-Hungary, with Austrian-owned railways crisscrossing Serbian territory and Austrian banks lending heavily to Serbian businesses. Austria also became the largest purchaser of Serbian agricultural exports, particularly livestock, wheat and fruit.

By the 1880s, Serbia was economically dependent on Austria-Hungary. This led to the Serbian king being viewed as a puppet ruler, obedient to the whims of Vienna. This situation displeased Serbian intellectuals, many of whom were sympathetic to Russia and fearful of Austrian expansionism.

In the early 1900s, Serbia's foreign policy began to shift away from Austrian influence under King Peter I, who took the throne in 1903. King Peter was more Westernised and liberal than his predecessors and was more interested in modernising the nation than preserving the monarchy. He transformed Serbia into a constitutional, democratic state and a modern economy, and Serbia's economic diversification and growth during this period reduced its dependence on Austria-Hungary.

Serbia also attempted to reduce its dependence on Austria-Hungary by building trade links with France, Russia and Bulgaria, leading to the so-called 'Pig War' of 1906. Tensions between Serbia and Austria-Hungary continued to escalate in the early 20th century, fuelled by Serbian nationalism and conflicting interests in the Balkans. This eventually led to the outbreak of World War I in 1914.

King Peter I's modernisation and liberalisation of Serbia

King Peter I of Serbia, crowned in 1903, was instrumental in the modernisation and liberalisation of the country. Educated in Paris and a veteran of the Franco-Prussian War, he was more Westernised and liberal than his predecessors. He was also more practical and hardworking, and more interested in modernising the nation than preserving the monarchy.

One of King Peter's first acts was to enact a Western-style constitution (1903), pass a political amnesty, relax suppressive laws, and abolish press censorship. This political liberalisation proved very popular not just with native Serbians but also with other Slavic peoples in the Balkans. Many Slavs came to see Serbia as a safe haven for Slavic identity and culture.

King Peter moved to realign Serbia's foreign policy, steering his country away from Austrian influence and instead brokering good relations and trade deals with France, Russia, and Bulgaria. This angered Austrian ministers, who, in 1906, initiated trade sanctions, banning future purchases of Serbian pork (one of its main exports). This episode, known as the 'Pig War', lasted three years and was a victory for Serbia, whose economy diversified and grew rapidly during this time.

King Peter's commitment to parliamentary democracy, unrestricted political freedoms, and a free press, earned him enormous popularity. His reign is remembered as the "Golden Age of Serbia".

Serbian nationalism and pan-Slavism

Serbian Nationalism

Serbia became an independent nation-state in 1878, having been ruled by the Ottoman Empire since the Middle Ages. However, even after gaining independence, Serbia continued to face external pressures and influences, including from its neighbour Austria. Serbia's first king, Milan Obrenovic, was pro-Austrian and aligned his country with Vienna, which led to economic dependence on Austria by the 1880s. This displeased Serbian intellectuals, who were sympathetic to Russia and feared Austrian expansionism.

In 1903, King Milan's son, Alexander I, was assassinated in a coup, and the Serbian throne was handed to Peter, a prince from the rival Karageorgevic dynasty. King Peter I set about modernising and liberalising Serbia, transforming it into a constitutional, democratic state with a modern economy. These changes angered Austrian ministers, who had been used to shaping policy in Serbia, and led to trade sanctions against Serbia, known as the 'Pig War'.

With rising economic independence from Austria-Hungary, calls for greater political independence and Serbian nationalism intensified.

Pan-Slavism

Pan-Slavism was a movement based on the idea that all speakers of Slavic languages belong to a single nation and should be unified into a common state. The movement emerged in the mid-19th century and gained momentum in the first decades of the 19th century due to the development of German nationalism. It was particularly appealing to Southern Slavs, who had been ruled by non-Slavic empires for centuries.

In the context of Serbia, pan-Slavism called for the liberation of Slavs under Austrian rule and the formation of a Slavic super-state in the Balkans, with Serbia as its centre. This idea was supported by Serbian nationalists, who saw Austria-Hungary as a threat to Slavic independence.

Pan-Slavic nationalist groups formed in Serbia, aiming to protect the rights of Slavic people in the region and drive out Austria-Hungary from the Balkans. These groups used propaganda and agitation to promote their cause, and they enjoyed some support from Serbian bureaucrats, military officers, and even members of the royal family.

The tensions between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, fuelled by Serbian nationalism and pan-Slavism, ultimately contributed to the outbreak of World War I, with the assassination of Austria's Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a member of the Serbian nationalist group, the Black Hand, serving as a flashpoint.

The Pig War

Serbia was ruled by the Ottoman Empire until it became a self-governing principality in 1830 and gained international recognition as a nation-state in 1878. However, Serbia soon became economically dependent on Austria-Hungary, its northern neighbour. Austria became the largest purchaser of Serbian agricultural exports, particularly livestock, wheat and fruit.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Serbia began to diversify its trade partners, establishing trade links with France, Bulgaria, Germany and Russia. This was an attempt to reduce its economic dependence on Austria-Hungary. In response, Austria-Hungary reacted with economic sanctions, banning the import of Serbian pork in 1906. This was a significant move, as pork was Serbia's major export.

The 'Pig War' lasted from 1906 to 1908 (some sources state 1909). Serbia refused to yield to Austria-Hungary. With French investment, Serbia built new packing plants for international trade and ordered materials from Germany, another rival of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Serbia also pressured the Austrian-administered provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina for a trade outlet on the Adriatic Sea. By March 1908, Austria-Hungary conceded defeat, as Serbian exports continued to grow and diversify.

The 'Pig War' was a victory for Serbia, which saw its economy grow and diversify during this period. This economic independence from Austria-Hungary led to calls for greater political independence, and intensified Serbian nationalism. Tensions between the two nations continued to escalate, contributing to the outbreak of World War I.

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