Prussia's Relationship With Austria: Vassal Or Independent?

Prussia was a vassal of Poland until the middle of the 17th century. However, by the latter half of the 18th century, it had become a major power in Europe, rivalling Austria, France, and Russia, and subjugating its former Polish rulers. Prussia's transformation from a small vassal state to a major European power was rapid and complex. This involved the acquisition of new territories, the development of a strong military, and the implementation of effective economic and administrative policies. The question of whether Prussia was a vassal to Austria is complex and requires an examination of the historical context, the power dynamics between the two states, and the evolution of their relationship over time.

Brandenburg-Prussia: a personal union between Brandenburg and Ducal Prussia

Prussia was a vassal of Poland until the middle of the 17th century. However, the Prussia that became a major European power was the former margraviate and later prince-electorship of Brandenburg. Through marriage and inheritance, Brandenburg expanded its territory gradually, and in 1518, the Hohenzollerns became rulers of the Margraviate of Brandenburg. In 1529, they secured the reversion of the Duchy of Pomerania, and in 1618, the electors of Brandenburg also inherited the Duchy of Prussia, which had been ruled by a younger branch of the House of Hohenzollern since 1511.

The union of Ducal Prussia with Brandenburg was fundamental to the rise of the Hohenzollern monarchy to the rank of a great power in Europe. This union was known as Brandenburg-Prussia and was a personal union, as a full union was not possible since Brandenburg was still legally part of the Holy Roman Empire, and the Duchy of Prussia was a fief of Poland. The Teutonic Order, from which the Duchy of Prussia originated, had paid homage to Poland since 1466, and the Hohenzollerns continued to do so after secularising Ducal Prussia.

In the course of the Second Northern War, the treaties of Labiau and Wehlau-Bromberg granted the Hohenzollerns full sovereignty over the Prussian duchy by September 1657. In 1660, Poland's suzerainty over Ducal Prussia ended, making the Hohenzollerns sovereign over Ducal Prussia, while Brandenburg and their other German territories remained nominally parts of the Reich under the theoretical suzerainty of the Holy Roman Emperor.

In 1701, the Elector's son, Frederick III, was allowed to elevate Prussia to a kingdom, and he crowned himself "King in Prussia" as Frederick I. Legally, no kingdoms could exist in the Holy Roman Empire except for Bohemia and Italy. However, Frederick argued that since Prussia had never been part of the empire and the Hohenzollerns were fully sovereign over it, he could elevate Prussia to a kingdom. While the personal union between Brandenburg and Prussia continued until the end of the empire in 1806, from 1701 onwards, Brandenburg was de facto treated as an integral part of the kingdom.

The War of the Austrian Succession: a conflict sparked by Prussia's invasion of Silesia

Prussia was a vassal of Poland until the middle of the 17th century. By the latter half of the 18th century, it had become a major power in Europe, rivalling Austria, France and Russia, and subjugating its former Polish rulers.

Prussia's invasion of Silesia in 1740 sparked the War of the Austrian Succession. This conflict was fought between 1740 and 1748, primarily in Central Europe, the Austrian Netherlands, Italy, the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. The war was sparked by a dispute over the succession of Emperor Charles VI, who died in 1740. His daughter, Maria Theresa, succeeded him, but Prussia's King Frederick II (Frederick the Great) declined to endorse the succession.

Frederick desired the prosperous, resource-rich and strategically located Austrian province of Silesia, hoping to unify his disconnected lands. He also disputed Maria Theresa's right to the Habsburg lands while making his own claim on Silesia. On 16 December 1740, Frederick invaded and quickly occupied the province, beginning the First Silesian War (1740-1742).

The Prussian army proved to be a powerful force, and Prussia claimed victory in the First Silesian War. The 1742 Treaty of Breslau gave Prussia all of Silesia and Glatz County, with the Austrians retaining only a portion of Upper Silesia.

In 1744, Frederick renewed his alliance with the French and preemptively invaded Bohemia, beginning the Second Silesian War (1744-1745). Frederick's victories in Bohemia and Silesia forced his enemies to seek peace. The 1745 Treaty of Dresden confirmed the terms of the Treaty of Breslau, with Frederick recognising the election of Maria Theresa's husband, Francis I, as Holy Roman Emperor.

The War of the Austrian Succession escalated and eventually involved most of the powers of Europe. Austria was supported by Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Electorate of Saxony. France and Prussia were allied with the Electorate of Bavaria. The conflict was also connected to other wars, including King George's War in North America, the War of Jenkins' Ear, the First Carnatic War in India, and the Jacobite rising of 1745 in Scotland.

The Seven Years' War: a continuation of the Silesian Wars

Prussia was a vassal of Poland until the middle of the 17th century. By the latter half of the 18th century, it had become a major power in Europe, rivalling Austria, France and Russia, and subjugating its former Polish rulers. Prussia's rise to power was gradual, acquiring territories through marriage and inheritance.

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was a global conflict fought between many belligerents, but its Central European theatre was focused on lingering tensions from the War of the Austrian Succession (1741-1748). The War of the Austrian Succession was itself fought over the question of the Austrian throne, which, in 1740, was inherited by Maria Theresa, the daughter of the previous Habsburg emperor, Charles VI. Prussia, led by Frederick II, invaded Silesia, a province in the kingdom of Bohemia, which was part of the Habsburg monarchy. The Silesian Wars were fought between Prussia and Austria, with Prussia emerging victorious and retaining control of Silesia.

The Third Silesian War (1756-1763) was the last of the three Silesian Wars, fought between Frederick the Great's Prussia and Maria Theresa's Austria. It was fought mainly in Silesia, Bohemia and Upper Saxony and formed one theatre of the Seven Years' War. The war was costly for both sides, and it ended inconclusively when neither Prussia nor Austria could sustain the conflict any longer. The Treaty of Hubertusburg in 1763 confirmed Prussian control of Silesia.

The Seven Years' War can be seen as a continuation of the First and Second Silesian Wars, as Austria was determined to retake Silesia and reassert its hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire. The war was also part of an international struggle between France and Britain, who were vying for power in western and southern Europe, North America and India. The Seven Years' War thus had global consequences, reshaping the colonial empires of several European powers.

The Kingdom of Prussia: a German state that existed between 1701 and 1918

Prussia was a German state that existed between 1701 and 1918, known as the Kingdom of Prussia. It was centred on the North European Plain and played a significant role in shaping Germany's history. With its capital in Berlin, the Kingdom of Prussia was the driving force behind the unification of Germany in 1866 and was the leading state of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918.

The Kingdom of Prussia was ruled by the House of Hohenzollern, who expanded its size and power with the Prussian Army. The state originated from the 1525 secularisation of the Prussian part of the State of the Teutonic Order. The Teutonic Knights, a German military order of crusaders, conquered the lands inhabited by the Old Prussians in the 13th century. The Old Prussians were related to the Latvians and Lithuanians and lived in tribes in the heavily forested region between the lower Vistula and Neman rivers.

In 1525, Albert of Hohenzollern, the last grand master of the Teutonic Order, secularised his territory and converted it into a duchy, becoming the first Duke of Prussia. The duchy was ruled by the Hohenzollern dynasty until 1618, when it passed to John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, through marriage. John Sigismund's grandson, Frederick William, became known as the "Great Elector" due to his military prowess and administrative reforms.

In 1701, Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia, crowned himself "King in Prussia" as Frederick I, marking the establishment of the Kingdom of Prussia. However, the state was still technically part of the Holy Roman Empire, and Frederick acknowledged the emperor's suzerainty. Despite this, the Kingdom of Prussia functioned as an absolute monarchy, with the king retaining full executive authority.

Under Frederick I and his son, Frederick William I, the Kingdom of Prussia continued to rise in power. Frederick William I was particularly focused on building a strong military and an efficient bureaucracy. He established a standing army, which became one of the most powerful in Europe, and introduced a system of conscription.

The Kingdom of Prussia reached its peak under Frederick II, also known as Frederick the Great, who ruled from 1740 to 1786. Frederick the Great was a philosopher, musician, and military genius who led Prussia to numerous victories, including the Silesian Wars and the Seven Years' War. Through these conflicts, Prussia acquired rich territories, such as Silesia, and established itself as a European great power.

Prussia played a crucial role in the Napoleonic Wars, eventually joining the coalition against Napoleon. After Napoleon's defeat, Prussia gained new territories at the Congress of Vienna, including the coal-rich Ruhr region. Prussia then became the core of the North German Confederation in 1867 and played a central role in the unification of Germany in 1871, forming the German Empire.

The Kingdom of Prussia was dissolved in 1918 along with other German monarchies following the German Revolution. In the aftermath, Prussia lost much of its legal and political importance, and it was effectively dismantled during the Nazi regime. After World War II, the Allies officially abolished Prussia, and its former territories were reorganised into new states within East and West Germany.

The Partitions of Poland: a series of territorial divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth between Russia, Prussia, and Austria

Prussia was once a vassal of Poland, but by the latter half of the 18th century, it had become a major power in Europe, capable of rivalling Austria, France, and Russia.

The Partitions of Poland refer to three territorial divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, which took place towards the end of the 18th century. These partitions ended the existence of the Polish state for 123 years, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland and Lithuania.

The First Partition occurred on August 5, 1772, after the Bar Confederation lost the war with Russia. Russia, Prussia, and Austria signed a treaty that partitioned Poland, depriving it of approximately half of its population and about a third of its land area. Russia received all Polish territory east of the Dvina and Dnieper rivers. Prussia gained the economically valuable province of Royal Prussia (excluding Gdańsk and Toruń) and the northern portion of Great Poland (Wielkopolska). Austria acquired Little Poland (Małopolska) south of the Vistula River, western Podolia, and the area that became known as Galicia.

The Second Partition occurred in 1793, after the Polish-Russian War of 1792 and the Targowica Confederation. Russian and Prussian troops entered the Commonwealth, and the partition treaty was signed during the Grodno Sejm on January 23, 1793. This time, Russia gained the major remnant of Lithuanian Belorussia and western Ukraine, including Podolia and part of Volhynia. Prussia absorbed the cities of Gdańsk and Toruń, as well as Great Poland and part of Mazovia.

The Third Partition took place on October 24, 1795, in reaction to the unsuccessful Polish Kościuszko Uprising the previous year. This final partition saw Russia incorporate Courland, all Lithuanian territory east of the Neman River, and the rest of the Volhynian Ukraine. Prussia acquired the remainder of Mazovia, including Warsaw, and a section of Lithuania west of the Neman. Austria took the remaining section of Little Poland, from Kraków northeastward to the arc of the Northern Bug River.

The partitions were not without opposition. The War of the Confederation of Bar (1768-1772) saw irregular Polish forces try to expel Russian troops from Commonwealth territory, but they were defeated. The Kościuszko Uprising of 1794, led by Polish officer Tadeusz Kościuszko, was another attempt to resist the partitions, but it too was ultimately crushed.

The cumulative effect of these partitions was devastating for Poland. By the Third Partition, Poland had lost about 81% of its territory, and its population had been reduced to just a third of its pre-partition size. The partitions also had a significant impact on Polish society and culture, leading to the Great Emigration of Polish politicians, intellectuals, and revolutionaries, who continued to resist and seek a change in the status quo.

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