How Austria And Italy's History Intertwined

Italy and Austria have had a long and complex history of relations, with periods of cooperation and conflict. Since the Middle Ages, Austria has exerted significant influence over the Italian states, particularly in northern Italy. This influence extended to culture, architecture, and cuisine, with Austrian artists and architects contributing to the Baroque style in Austria, notably in Salzburg. However, Italian nationalism clashed with Austrian interests during the 19th and 20th centuries, leading to several Wars of Italian Independence. As a result of World War I and the subsequent Treaty of Saint Germain in 1919, Italy annexed South Tyrol, which had been part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This annexation led to tensions and a struggle for self-determination and minority rights, as South Tyrol was predominantly inhabited by German speakers. Despite Mussolini's attempts to Italianise the region, calls for independence and reunification with Austria have persisted in South Tyrol, highlighting the complex dynamics of national identity in the region.

Italy's annexation of South Tyrol

Background

South Tyrol was historically part of the Austro-Hungarian County of Tyrol, which included the Italian-speaking province of Trento and the predominantly German-speaking territory of South Tyrol.

Treaty of London (1915)

During World War I, Italy initially declared its neutrality, but in April 1915, it signed the secret Treaty of London with the Allied Powers, agreeing to join the war in exchange for territorial gains, including parts of the Austrian crown lands of Tyrol.

Armistice and Occupation (1918)

In November 1918, an armistice was signed between Austria-Hungary and Italy, leading to the Italian army's occupation of South Tyrol. This occupation was intended to be provisional, as Italy sought to administer the region until a final peace settlement.

Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919)

The Treaty of Saint-Germain, signed in September 1919, formally ceded the ethnic German territories south of the Alpine watershed to Italy, including South Tyrol. This went against Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, which advocated for national self-determination and the adjustment of Italian borders along clear lines of nationality.

Italianization Policies

After the rise of Benito Mussolini and the Fascists to power in 1922, the Italian government embarked on a systematic program of Italianization in South Tyrol. These policies included:

• Forbidding the use of German in schools and public offices
• Replacing German place names with Italian equivalents
• Discouraging the use of the name "Tirol"
• Encouraging immigration from other Italian regions to South Tyrol, particularly to the industrial zone in Bolzano
• Dismissing German-speaking civil servants and replacing them with Italians

The South Tyrol Option Agreement (1939)

In 1939, Mussolini and Hitler reached an agreement that had far-reaching consequences for South Tyrol. Mussolini aimed to make South Tyrol entirely Italian, while Hitler wanted to incorporate newly conquered territories into the German Reich. They offered South Tyroleans the "Option" to either remain and undergo complete Italianization or emigrate to Germany, including annexed Austria. Initially, most South Tyroleans chose emigration, but the outbreak of World War II prevented a mass exodus, and ultimately, about 75,000 people left. This decision divided society, and those who stayed were branded as traitors.

Post-World War II Developments

After the fall of Mussolini and the Fascist regime in 1943, South Tyrol was occupied by the Germans, and Bolzano became the administrative centre of the Pre-Alpine Operations Zone. However, with the Allied victory in 1945, South Tyrol was once again under Italian control.

The South Tyrolean People's Party (SVP) was founded in 1945 to advocate for self-determination. In 1946, Italy and Austria negotiated an agreement recognizing the rights of the German minority, leading to the creation of the Trentino-Alto Adige/Tiroler Etschland region. While German and Italian were made official languages, and German-language education was permitted, the Italian majority in the region prevented effective self-government for the German minority.

Tensions and dissatisfaction among South Tyroleans continued, leading to terrorist acts by the Befreiungsausschuss Südtirol (BAS) in the 1960s. The South Tyrolean Question became an international issue, taken up by the United Nations in 1960.

Autonomy and Ongoing Tensions

A second Austro-Italian agreement was signed in 1969, granting South Tyrol greater autonomy within Italy and stipulating that disputes would be settled by the International Court of Justice in The Hague. While this agreement eased separatist tensions, the region continues to grapple with questions of identity and autonomy, with a small but persistent separatist movement advocating for reunification with North Tyrol in Austria.

The Treaty of London

The agreement involved promises of Italian territorial expansion against Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, as well as in Africa, where Italy was promised an enlargement of its colonies. The Entente countries hoped that Italy's entry into the war would force the Central Powers, particularly Germany and Austria-Hungary, to divert their forces away from existing battlefields.

In exchange for opening a front in the Alps, Italy was promised substantial amounts of land in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Specifically, Italy was promised Trieste, southern Tyrol, northern Dalmatia, and other territories. Italy was also guaranteed military support from Russia against Austria-Hungary, as outlined in Article 1 of the treaty. Article 2 required Italy to enter the war against all enemies of the United Kingdom, Russia, and France, while Article 3 obliged the French and British navies to support the Italian war effort by destroying the Austro-Hungarian fleet.

The treaty also included promises of land to Serbia and Montenegro, as these nations were needed to help offset Bulgaria's entrance into the war on the side of the Central Powers. However, the Treaty of London was later rejected by the United States during peace negotiations and eventually nullified.

Benito Mussolini and his Fascist Party frequently pointed to the failure to respect the treaty as a stain on Italian honour, which eventually resulted in Italy seeking to build an empire in Africa and the Balkans. The Italian struggle against Austria is mentioned in the country's national anthem, written in 1847, highlighting the long-standing tension between the two nations.

Italianisation of South Tyrol

The Italianisation of South Tyrol was a process of forced cultural and ethnic assimilation of the native populations living in the region. South Tyrol, or Alto Adige in Italian, was annexed by Italy in 1919, at the end of World War I. The region was previously part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and was inhabited by a large German-speaking majority—almost 90% according to the 1910 census.

The Italianisation process was driven by the fascist regime, led by Benito Mussolini, and was particularly forceful in schools, aiming at the destruction of the German school system. German newspapers, publishing houses, clubs, and associations were renamed and German teachers were systematically dismissed or transferred to the south. Italian became the sole language of instruction in schools and the sole permissible language in courts of law. Place names were Italianised, and German surnames were changed to Italian-sounding forms.

In 1939, Mussolini and Adolf Hitler agreed to give the German-speaking population of South Tyrol a choice: they could emigrate to neighbouring Germany or stay in Italy and accept complete Italianisation. This agreement was never fully implemented due to the outbreak of World War II, but it deeply divided the South Tyrolean society. Those who chose to stay were condemned as traitors, while those who left were defamed as Nazis.

After World War II, South Tyrol was one of the first regions to be granted autonomy, and any further attempts at Italianisation were formally abandoned. Today, South Tyrol is a peaceful and wealthy Italian province, enjoying a high degree of autonomy and strong relations with the Austrian state of Tyrol.

The Austrian Empire's influence over Italy

Since the Middle Ages, the Austrian Empire has exerted a significant influence over the Italian states, particularly in the north of the country. This influence was felt through military alliances, cultural exchange, and territorial expansion.

Military Alliances

Austria and Italy have a long history of fighting wars together, dating back to the late Middle Ages. They were allies during wars against the Ottoman Empire, with Austria joining forces with various Italian states, including Tuscany, Mantua, Ferrara, Savoy, and the Papal States. Together, they fought against common enemies, such as during the war of 1593-1606. However, there were also instances when Austria and Italy found themselves on opposing sides, such as in the Uskok War of 1615-1618, where Austria and the Republic of Venice clashed.

Cultural Exchange

The influence between Austria and Italy was not just one-way; Italy also left its mark on Austrian culture, architecture, and cuisine. Italian artists and architects like Santino Solari, Martino Altomonte, Giovanni Zucalli, and Vincenzo Scamozzi contributed to the Baroque style in Austria, particularly in Salzburg.

Territorial Expansion

Starting in the 18th century, Austria expanded its territory into Italy, ruling over various parts of the country at different times. As a result of the War of the Spanish Succession, Austria gained control of the Duchy of Milan and Mantua in northern Italy, as well as the kingdoms of Naples and Sardinia in the south in 1714. Through treaties and wars, Austria's influence in Italy continued to grow, acquiring the Kingdom of Sicily and later the Duchy of Parma. However, there were also setbacks, such as losing Milan and Mantua to the Cisalpine Republic in 1797.

Austrian rule in northern Italy had a significant impact on the rise of Italian nationalism, which clashed with Austrian interests. This tension led to the Wars of Italian Independence between 1848 and 1866, resulting in an Italian victory and the loss of Austrian territories in Italy. Despite periods of alliance, such as the Triple Alliance of 1882, tensions persisted due to conflicting interests and nationalism within Austria-Hungary.

In conclusion, the Austrian Empire's influence over Italy was multifaceted and complex, leaving a lasting impact on the political, cultural, and territorial landscape of both countries.

Italian nationalism

Renaissance to 19th Century

The origins of Italian nationalism can be traced back to the Renaissance when Italy led a European revival of classical Greco-Roman culture, philosophy, and art. Italian nationalism first developed among the intellectual elites of various Italian states. In 1344, Petrarch wrote the famous patriotic canzone "Italia mia" (Rime 128), in which he called for peace and unification. Around the same time, Cola di Rienzo attempted to unite the whole of Italy under the hegemony of Rome.

In 1454, representatives from all the regional states of Italy met in Lodi to sign the Treaty of Lodi, through which they intended to pursue Italian unification. However, this unity was short-lived as, in 1494, French troops under Charles VIII initiated the Italian Wars, disrupting the status quo.

During the Renaissance, the diplomat and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli appealed to Italian patriotism, urging Italians to "seize Italy and free her from the Barbarians". Machiavelli quoted Petrarch's "Italia mia" and referenced the glory of ancient Rome to inspire Italians to unite and expel foreign powers from the Italian peninsula.

Revolutions of 1848 to Risorgimento (1859 to 1870)

The Revolutions of 1848 marked a significant development in the Italian nationalist movement. Liberalization of press laws in Piedmont allowed nationalist activity to flourish. The Italian Nationalist Organization, called the Italian National Society, was created in 1857 by Daniele Manin and Giorgio Pallevicino. The National Society helped establish a base for Italian nationalism among the educated middle class and played a crucial role in gaining middle-class support for the union of Piedmont and Lombardy.

The Risorgimento was an ideological movement that incited feelings of brotherhood and nationalism, calling for the unification of Italy and the expulsion of foreign powers. Literature, music, and other forms of expression during this period often alluded to the glorious past of Rome and the feats of their ancestors in defending their homeland.

Post-Risorgimento, World War I, and Aftermath (1870 to 1922)

After the unification of Italy in 1870, the country faced domestic political paralysis and internal tensions, leading to a colonial policy to divert public attention. This period saw the rise of prominent figures like Francesco Crispi, whose actions as prime minister were characterised by a strong nationalism focused on national unity and defence against foreign countries. Italy engaged in colonial endeavours in East Africa and against the Ottoman Empire, but these attempts to gain popular support failed, and rebellions and violent protests intensified.

During World War I, Italian nationalism re-emerged strongly, with irredentist claims to territories held by Austria-Hungary. After the war, nationalist pride soared with Italy's victory and seizure of former Austro-Hungarian territories, making nationalism a major force until 1945.

Fascism and World War II (1922 to 1945)

Italian Fascism sought to complete the project of Risorgimento by incorporating unredeemed Italy into the state. They claimed territories to the east, south, north, and west of Italy, including Dalmatia, Malta, Corsica, and parts of Switzerland, leading to interventionist policies and alliances with Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan.

Post–World War II and Current Situation

After World War II, Italian nationalism faced a decline due to its close association with Fascism and the negative memories of the war. The post-World War II Italian Constitution includes strong protections against the revival of fascism to prevent another dictatorship. Italian nationalism became largely associated with right-wing political parties, such as the neo-fascist Italian Social Movement (MSI).

In recent decades, nationalism has re-entered public discourse in Italy due to globalisation, immigration crises, and debates about the country's membership in the European Union. Political groups like the League, led by Matteo Salvini, and Fratelli d'Italia, led by Giorgia Meloni, have embraced nationalism and taken anti-immigration stances.

On the extreme end of the spectrum is CasaPound, a self-declared neo-fascist group that openly celebrates Mussolini's legacy and employs fascist symbolism, directly violating the Italian Constitution.

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