Joseph Ii Of Austria: A Divine Right Ruler?

Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor from 1765 to 1790, was the first ruler of the Austrian dominions of the House of Lorraine, styled Habsburg-Lorraine. He was the eldest son of Empress Maria Theresa and her husband, Francis I, and was the brother of Marie Antoinette.

Joseph was a proponent of enlightened absolutism and believed in the power of the state when directed by reason. However, his commitment to modernizing reforms, including the secularization of church lands, the reduction of the power of the church, and the removal of restrictions on trade and knowledge, engendered significant opposition, which eventually led to a failure to fully implement his programs.

While Joseph's commitment to reform and modernization was clear, the question of whether he believed his right to rule was derived from divine right is more complex. On the one hand, he was a believer in the power of reason and was influenced by Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire and the Encyclopédistes. On the other hand, as an absolutist ruler, he was convinced of his right to speak for the state uncontrolled by laws and believed in the august quality of the House of Austria.

Ultimately, Joseph's complex relationship with the Catholic Church, his attempts to centralize power, and his failure to fully implement his programs due to opposition, suggest that his rule was not based on a straightforward belief in divine right. Instead, his policies, now known as Josephinism, were shaped by a combination of Enlightenment ideals and a strong sense of royal authority.

Joseph II's commitment to modernisation

Joseph's commitment to modernisation was reflected in his efforts to establish a rationalised, centralised and uniform government for his diverse lands. He envisioned a hierarchy with himself as the supreme autocrat, expecting government servants to be dedicated agents of his policies, recruited based on merit rather than class or ethnic origins. To impose uniformity, Joseph made German the compulsory language of official business throughout the empire, a highly controversial step in a multilingual empire.

In terms of tax, land and legal reform, Joseph ordered an appraisal of all properties in the empire to impose a single and egalitarian land tax, modernising the relationship between landowners and peasants. He also introduced the Serfdom Patent in 1781, which established basic civil liberties for serfs, although it was enforced differently across the various Habsburg lands.

Joseph continued and expanded his mother's education and public health reforms. He made elementary education compulsory for all boys and girls and offered higher education to a select few, creating scholarships for talented poor students. He also allowed the establishment of schools for Jews and other religious minorities.

In the medical field, Joseph attempted to centralise healthcare in Vienna by constructing the Allgemeines Krankenhaus, one of the most modern hospitals in Europe at the time.

Joseph's most controversial reform was his attempt to modernise the Catholic Church, making it a tool of the state independent of Rome. He closed a third of monasteries, reduced the number of monks and nuns, and deprived clergymen of the tithe, ordering them to study in seminaries under government supervision. He also simplified the manner in which Mass was celebrated and sharply cut the number of holy days observed.

Joseph's commitment to modernisation was ultimately met with significant opposition, and many of his reforms were never fully implemented or were later revoked.

The impact of Josephinism

Josephinism refers to the domestic policies of Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor from 1765 to 1790, and sole ruler of the Habsburg monarchy from 1780 to 1790. During his reign, Joseph II attempted to drastically reform the Habsburg monarchy, provoking resistance from powerful forces within and outside his empire.

Serfdom

Josephinism had a significant impact on the traditional serfdom system in the Habsburg lands. In 1781, Joseph II issued the Serfdom Patent, which aimed to abolish aspects of serfdom and establish basic civil liberties for serfs. The patent abolished the use of fines and corporal punishment imposed on serfs, as well as lords' control over serfs' marriage, freedom of movement, and choice of occupation. It also allowed peasants to purchase hereditary ownership of the land they worked. While the patent was enforced differently across the various Habsburg lands, it represented a significant step towards the abolition of serfdom, which was finally achieved in 1848.

Education and Public Health

Josephinism also had a notable impact on education and public health. Joseph II continued and expanded the education and public health reforms initiated by his mother, Maria Theresa. Elementary education was made compulsory for all children, and higher education was offered to a select few. Scholarships were created for talented poor students, and the establishment of schools for Jews and other religious minorities was permitted. In 1784, the language of instruction was changed from Latin to German, a controversial step in a multilingual empire.

In terms of public health, Joseph II attempted to centralize medical care in Vienna by constructing a large hospital, the Allgemeines Krankenhaus, which opened in 1784. While centralization worsened sanitation problems and led to epidemics, it ultimately contributed to Vienna's preeminence in the medical field in the following century.

The Catholic Church

One of the most significant and controversial aspects of Josephinism was its impact on the Catholic Church. Joseph II attempted to modernize the highly traditional Church and make it a tool of the state, independent of Rome. He established national training colleges for priests, deprived bishops of their authority, and limited their communications with the Pope. Over 700 monasteries not engaged in teaching or hospital work were dissolved, and monks and nuns were either given annuities or money to return home. While some of these measures bore good results, Joseph II's impatience in implementing the reforms led to the destruction of many works of art.

Religious Toleration

Josephinism is also known for its promotion of religious toleration. In 1781, Joseph II enacted the Patent of Toleration, which granted religious freedom to non-Catholic Christians, including Lutherans, Calvinists, and the Eastern Orthodox. This was followed by the Edict of Tolerance in 1782, which extended religious freedom and civil rights to the Jewish population, allowing them to attend schools and universities and engage in certain professions. However, the edict also stipulated that Jewish languages and written texts should be replaced by the national language of the country.

Taxation and Land Reform

Josephinism had a significant impact on taxation and land reform in the Habsburg monarchy. Joseph II ordered a fresh appraisal of the value of all properties in the empire, aiming to impose a single and egalitarian tax on land. This was intended to modernize the relationship between landowners and peasants, relieve the tax burden on the peasantry, and increase state revenues. However, these reforms met with resistance from the nobility, peasantry, and some officials.

Legal Reform

Josephinism also led to a complete reform of the legal system. Joseph II abolished brutal punishments and the death penalty in most instances and imposed the principle of equal treatment for all offenders. He also ended censorship of the press and theatre.

Joseph II's relationship with the Catholic Church

Joseph's attempts to modernise the Catholic Church included making it more independent from Rome. He wanted the church in his empire to be a tool of the state, and to this end, he took several measures. He deprived clergymen of the tithe and ordered them to study in seminaries under government supervision. Bishops were required to take an oath of loyalty to the crown, and their communications with the Pope were restricted. Joseph also reduced the number of monks and nuns, closing over 700 monasteries in the process. He defined marriage as a civil contract outside the jurisdiction of the church and simplified the manner in which Mass was celebrated.

In addition to these changes, Joseph also issued the Patent of Toleration in 1781 and the Edict of Tolerance in 1782, which granted religious freedom to non-Catholic Christians and the Jewish population, respectively. These edicts were part of Joseph's commitment to enlightened despotism, which held that royal power did not come from divine right but from a social contract.

Joseph's reforms were met with opposition from both within and outside the church. Opponents accused him of having Protestant tendencies and fostering anti-clericalism. The traditional Catholic countries of the Austrian Netherlands and Hungary were particularly resistant to his changes. Joseph's attempts to centralise power and impose German as the official language of the empire further alienated these regions.

Despite the resistance and ultimate failure to fully implement his programs, Joseph II's relationship with the Catholic Church was shaped by his desire to modernise and reform it according to Enlightenment ideals. He saw the church as a tool to be used by the state, and his reforms reflected this belief.

Joseph II's foreign policy

Joseph became Holy Roman Emperor in 1765, initially ruling as co-regent with his mother, Maria Theresa, until her death in 1780. Even before he became the sole ruler, Joseph was involved in foreign policy decisions, such as the First Partition of Poland, which saw him meet with King Frederick the Great of Prussia to divide up the country, with Austria taking Galicia.

As sole ruler, Joseph continued his expansionist foreign policy. He attempted to enforce Austria's claim on Bavaria, which ultimately led to the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778-1779). He also sought to acquire the Austrian Netherlands, even considering exchanging it for Bavaria. This plan was thwarted by King Frederick of Prussia, who formed the Fürstenbund (Princes' League) against Joseph.

Joseph then turned his attention to Russia, visiting Empress Catherine the Great and forming an alliance with her. This alliance would later lead to the Austro-Russian Alliance of 1781 and the expensive and largely futile Austro-Turkish War (1787-1791). Despite some victories, such as the capture of Belgrade, the war ultimately resulted in only token gains for the monarchy.

Joseph's foreign policy often caused unrest among his subjects, particularly when coupled with his attempts to impose German as the official language in various regions, including Hungary and the Austrian Netherlands. His interference in the traditional customs and governance of these regions led to revolts and open rebellion, including the Brabant Revolution in the Austrian Netherlands.

Overall, Joseph II's foreign policy was characterised by his ambitious expansionist goals, which frequently brought him into conflict with neighbouring nations and provoked resistance from his own subjects.

Joseph II's legacy

Joseph's legacy is also marked by his attempts to centralise power and impose uniformity across his diverse lands. He sought to establish a rationalised, centralised, and uniform government with himself as the supreme autocrat. He imposed German as the compulsory language of official business and attempted to standardise legal codes, ending the autonomy of regional governments.

Joseph's religious reforms, particularly his attempts to modernise the Catholic Church and limit the power of the Pope, were also significant. He established national training colleges for priests, reduced the number of monasteries, and limited the power of bishops. These actions provoked strong resistance, particularly in traditional Catholic countries such as the Austrian Netherlands and Hungary.

In terms of social reforms, Joseph introduced policies aimed at alleviating the plight of the peasantry, such as the abolition of serfdom and the establishment of basic civil liberties. He also made education compulsory and offered scholarships for talented poor students. Additionally, he granted religious freedom to non-Catholic Christians and extended limited religious freedom to the Jewish population.

Joseph's legacy in foreign affairs is more mixed. While he achieved some successes, such as the partition of Poland and the annexation of Bukovina, his reckless foreign policy isolated Austria and led to costly wars.

Overall, Joseph's legacy is characterised by his ambitious reform agenda, his attempts to centralise power, his religious reforms, and his social policies aimed at improving the lives of his subjects. However, his legacy is also marked by his failures to fully implement his programs due to significant opposition and his inability to fully understand and address the concerns of his people.

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