France-Austria Relations: Tensions During The French Revolution

The French Revolution, which began in 1789, caused a wave of concern among the crowned rulers of Europe, who watched it with a mixture of scorn, excitement, and fear. The most pivotal figure outside France was Leopold II, the Austrian king, Holy Roman Emperor, and brother of Marie Antoinette. Leopold admired the Enlightenment and its concepts of constitutional government and natural rights and was initially sympathetic to the French Revolution, believing that the formation of a constitutional monarchy in France might prolong his brother-in-law's reign. However, as the revolution became more radical, Leopold's stance changed. In July 1791, Leopold instigated the Padua Circular, calling for a European military coalition to invade France, halt the revolution, and reinstall the monarchy. This was followed by the Declaration of Pillnitz, a joint statement by Leopold and Frederick William II of Prussia, which threatened severe consequences if anything happened to King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette. In response, France declared war on Austria in the spring of 1792, marking the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars, which had a profound impact on both France and the course of European history.

Leopold II's Padua Circular

The Padua Circular was addressed to the sovereigns of Europe, and called for them to join Leopold in demanding the freedom of the French royal family. It stated that the arrest of the royal family was evidence of their confinement, and that this, along with the formal arrest of the king, queen, the Dauphin, and Madame Elizabeth, inspired fears about the future plans of the dominant party in France.

Leopold demanded that the royal family be set free, and that all royal persons be treated with the respect and inviolability that was due to them. He also stated that he would unite with other sovereigns to forcefully avenge any future outrages committed against the security, person, and honour of the royal family. Finally, Leopold declared that he would only recognise laws and constitutions in France that had the voluntary approval of the king.

The Padua Circular was followed by diplomatic initiatives in which the Habsburg monarchy sought rapprochement with its traditional enemy, Hohenzollern Prussia. This led to a convention between Prussia and Austria on 25 July 1791, which settled all outstanding disputes, and paved the way for the Declaration of Pillnitz, authored jointly by Austria and Prussia, in August 1791.

The Declaration of Pillnitz

> " [They] view the situation in which the King of France currently finds himself as a subject of common interest for all of Europe's sovereigns."

The declaration further urged these powers to:

> " [Use] the most efficient means…to place the King of France in a position to be totally free to consolidate the bases of a monarchical government."

The declaration was issued in response to the Padua Circular, which was released by Leopold II on 6 July 1791. The circular called on the sovereigns of Europe to join him in demanding Louis XVI's freedom. Leopold was particularly concerned about the safety of his sister, Marie Antoinette, who was the wife of Louis XVI. The French Revolution had sparked apprehension among European leaders, who feared similar unrest in their own countries.

The wording of the declaration was carefully chosen by Leopold to avoid committing to war. He knew that the British Prime Minister, William Pitt, did not support war with France. Instead, Leopold aimed to appease the émigrés while intimidating French revolutionaries into pursuing more conciliatory policies. However, the declaration had the opposite effect in France, where it was seen as a direct threat.

France declares war on Austria

In the late 18th century, France and Austria were two traditional geopolitical rivals. The French Revolution, which began in 1789, caused a significant shift in their relationship. Initially, the Austrian king, Leopold II, who was the brother of Marie Antoinette, wife of King Louis XVI of France, was sympathetic to the French Revolution. Leopold believed that the formation of a constitutional monarchy in France might prolong his brother-in-law's reign. However, as the revolution progressed and became more radical, tensions between the two nations escalated.

In July 1791, Leopold instigated the Padua Circular, calling for a European military coalition to invade France, halt the revolution, and reinstall the monarchy. This was followed by the Declaration of Pillnitz in August 1791, a joint statement by Leopold and Frederick William II, King of Prussia, which threatened severe consequences if anything happened to Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. In response, France refused to recall its troops from the French border and refused to back down on its perceived threat of using force.

On April 20, 1792, King Louis XVI attended a session of the Legislative Assembly, where he listened to speeches advocating for a preemptive war against Austria. The king then formally declared war against Austria and Emperor Francis II, the nephew of his wife. This declaration marked the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars, which had a profound impact on both nations and shaped the course of European history.

The initial months of the war were disastrous for France due to poor discipline and unrest in the army, partly caused by the revolution. The French revolutionary troops suffered humiliating defeats, including the murder of one of their generals by their own soldiers. However, in September 1792, the tide turned at the Battle of Valmy, where the French force of over 30,000 men defeated the Austrian and Prussian coalition, forcing them to retreat from French territory. This victory boosted the morale of the French revolutionaries and led to the abolition of the monarchy.

The war between France and Austria was part of a broader conflict known as the French Revolutionary Wars, which lasted from 1792 to 1802 and involved almost every significant European power at various times. These wars resulted in France conquering territories in the Italian Peninsula, the Low Countries, and the Rhineland due to its large and powerful military. The conflicts also led to the spread of revolutionary principles across Europe.

The Battle of Valmy

The French Revolution (1789-99) was a source of tension between France and the other monarchies of Europe, including Austria. As early as 1791, European monarchies were considering intervention in France, either in support of King Louis XVI, to prevent the spread of revolution, or to take advantage of the chaos in France. Austria stationed significant troops on its French border and, together with Prussia, issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, which threatened severe consequences should anything happen to King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette.

In response, France declared war on Austria and Prussia in the spring of 1792. Both countries responded with a coordinated invasion that was eventually turned back at the Battle of Valmy in September. Here is a detailed description of the battle:

The French forces, a combination of enthusiastic but ill-trained volunteers and experienced regulars from the old royal army, were supported by technically proficient French artillery. The Prussian coalition army, on the other hand, was made up of drilled Prussian and Austrian troops augmented by large complements of Hessians and émigrés of the French royalist Army of Condé. Combined, the French Army of the North and Army of the Centre totalled approximately 54,000 troops, while the Prussian coalition army numbered around 84,000.

The invading army first captured Longwy on 23 August and then Verdun on 2 September, before moving towards Paris through the defiles of the Forest of Argonne. In response, Dumouriez reversed course and approached the enemy army from its rear. Kellermann moved to his assistance, joining him at the village of Sainte-Menehould on 19 September. The French forces were now east of the Prussians, behind their lines.

The Prussians could have theoretically marched straight towards Paris unopposed. However, this course was never seriously considered as the threat to their lines of supply and communication was too great to be ignored. The situation was further compounded by bad weather and an alarming increase in sickness among the troops. With few other options available, Brunswick turned back and prepared to do battle.

On the morning of 20 September, the Prussian vanguard led by Prince Hohenlohe came under fire from French artillery positioned on the heights of the small village of Valmy, where a French detachment under General Kellermann had taken up position beneath an old windmill. The Prussians brought up their own artillery pieces and an artillery duel commenced, with over 20,000 cannon shots fired over the course of the day. The Prussian infantry then made a cautious effort to advance under fire across the open ground but to no avail.

As the Prussians wavered, Kellermann raised his hat and made his famous cry of "Vive la Nation". The cry was repeated by all the French army and had a crushing effect upon Prussian morale. The French troops sang "La Marseillaise" and "Ça Ira", and a cheer went up from the French line. To everyone's surprise, Brunswick broke off the action and retired from the field. The Prussians commenced a rapid retreat eastward.

The victory at Valmy was a stunning victory for the French over a Prussian-led coalition army. Although the battle was little more than a skirmish, it had far-reaching ramifications. It halted the coalition's invasion, allowed for the establishment of the First French Republic, and ensured the continuation of the French Revolution. It also served as a huge psychological victory for the Revolution, emboldening the newly assembled National Convention to formally declare the end of monarchy in France and to establish the French Republic.

The battle introduced features that reshaped modern warfare. It exemplified key components of "total war" in terms of political propaganda, psychological warfare, and eager participation of large numbers of politicized civilians. It is considered by historians as one of the most significant battles in history.

The Girondin case for war

The Girondins were active in the Legislative Assembly and the National Convention from 1791 to 1793. They were initially part of the Jacobin movement, alongside the Montagnards, and campaigned for the end of the monarchy. However, they resisted the spiralling momentum of the Revolution, which caused conflict with the more radical Montagnards.

The Girondins reached the height of their power and popularity in the spring of 1792. On 20 April 1792, the Girondins, led by Jacques Pierre Brissot, urged for war against Austria, which was declared. Brissot proposed an ambitious military plan to spread the Revolution internationally, and so the Girondins were the war party in 1792-1793. They argued that war would rally patriots around the Revolution, liberate oppressed peoples from despotism, and test the loyalty of King Louis XVI.

The Girondins believed that the war they urged was necessary to unite the people behind the cause of the Revolution. They also supported an aggressive foreign policy and called for war against Austria, arguing that it would liberate oppressed peoples from despotism. Additionally, they believed that war would test the loyalty of King Louis XVI, who they viewed with suspicion.

The Girondins dominated the movement until their fall in the insurrection of 31 May – 2 June 1793, which resulted in the domination of the Montagnards and the purge and eventual mass execution of the Girondins. This event is considered to mark the beginning of the Reign of Terror.

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